G EN ER AL L C / C A R / G .6 1 9 22 S eptem ber 2000 O R IG IN A L : E N G L IS H POVERTY AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION IN THE CARIBBEAN Table of Contents Introduction.............................................................................................................................................1 Infant mortality...................................................................................................................................... 2 Malnutrition and communicable diseases........................................................................................ 3 Employment and income...................................................................................................................... 6 Education...............................................................................................................................................11 Social services........................................................................................................................................12 Illicit drugs, violence and crime.........................................................................................................15 Concluding remarks............................................................................................................................18 Annex - Tables.......................................................................................................................................19 POVERTY AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION IN THE CARIBBEAN Introduction T h i s d o c u m e n t w i l l e x a m i n e m a j o r in d i c a t o r s th a t i m p i n g e o n th e i s s u e o f p o v e r t y , th e a n a ly s i s o f w h ic h r e la t e s t o p r o b l e m s o f s o c ia l in t e g r a t i o n o f a ll m e m b e r s o f s o c ie t y in th e C a r i b b e a n . I n its p r e p a r a t io n , u s e h a s b e e n m a d e n o t o n l y o f th e m o s t r e c e n t ly a v a i l a b l e d a ta , b u t a l s o o f d a t a r e le v a n t t o p r e v i o u s p e r i o d s , s u c h a s t o d e t e c t t r e n d s o f s o c ia l d e v e l o p m e n t in t e r m s o f p o v e r t y a n d th e d ir e c t i o n o f th e p r o c e s s o f s o c ia l in t e g r a t io n . S e v eral s t u d ie s have been u n d ertak en d e v e l o p i n g s t r a t e g ic p la n s f o r its r e d u c t io n . fo r th e p u rp o se of a s s e s s in g p o v e rty and H o w e v e r , f e w h a v e b e e n u n d e r t a k e n f o r th e p u r p o s e o f d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h g r o u p s a r e n o t r e a l l y in t e g r a t e d in t o s o c ie t y 's d e v e l o p m e n t a n d th e r e a s o n s w h y t h is o c c u r s . T h e r e f o r e , p o l i c i e s n e e d t o b e p u t in p l a c e t o f o s t e r s o c ia l in t e g r a t i o n o f a ll. T h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d h e r e in t e n d s t o c o n t r ib u t e t o w a r d s th e r e a li z a t i o n o f s u c h a g o a l . The le v e l o f p o v e rty in a co u n try is one o f th e key d e t e r m in a n t s o f o v e r a ll s o c ia l c o n d it io n s . I n d e m o c r a t ic s o c ie t ie s , th e w e a l t h o f a S ta te is u s u a l l y r e f le c t e d in th e w e l l - b e i n g o f its p e o p l e , b u t t h is is n o t a l w a y s th e c a s e . A in d i c a t o r s , w h ile la rg e seg m e n ts of th e c o u n try m ig h t h a v e p o p u la t io n fa ll b e lo w s e v e ra l p o s it iv e e c o n o m ic th e p o v e rty lin e . R ecent a s s e s s m e n t s o f p o v e r t y u n d e r t a k e n in s e le c t e d c o u n t r ie s o f th e s u b r e g i o n f o u n d th a t 2 5 t o 3 8 p e r c e n t o f th e p o p u l a t i o n w e r e in th e p o v e r t y b r a c k e t . Box 1 Poor population in selected countries by year and agent of poverty assessment Belize Grenada St. Lucia St.Vincent and the Grenadines 33.0 32.1 25.1 1996 1998 1996 KAIRI KAIRI KAIRI 37.5 1996 KAIRI (See Annex, Table I) F o r e a c h y e a r s in c e its p u b l i c a t i o n , th e U n i t e d N a t i o n s D e v e l o p m e n t P r o g r a m m e ( U N D P ) H u m a n D e v e l o p m e n t R e p o r t r a n k s c o u n t r ie s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e ir state o f h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e i n d e x c o n s t r u c t e d is k n o w n a s th e H u m a n D e v e l o p m e n t I n d e x ( H D I ) . T a b l e I I s h o w s th e r a n k i n g p o s i t io n of s e le c t e d C a rib b e a n c o u n t r ie s fro m 1 9 9 0 -1 9 9 7 , th e y ears fo r w h ic h v a lu e s and r a n k i n g s h a v e b e e n c a lc u la t e d . G u y a n a a n d H a i t i c o n s is t e n t ly r a n k h i g h e s t a n d f a r a b o v e th e re s t o f th e C a r i b b e a n c o u n t r ie s o v e r th e p e r i o d , w i t h G u y a n a s l o w l y g o i n g d o w n in r a n k a n d H a i t i r a n k i n g h i g h e r e a c h y e a r u p t o 1 9 9 5 , a ft e r w h i c h th e r a n k i n g l o w e r s f o r th e fir s t t im e . T h e l o w e s t ra n k in g h a s b e e n m a in ta in e d b y B a r b a d o s . 2 Box 2 HDI ranking for selected CDCC countries 1990 1992 1994 1995 1997 20 25 24 24 29 Barbados 105 105 104 100 99 Guyana 137 148 156 159 152 Haiti 31 39 40 40 46 Trinidad and Tobago_____________________________________________ (See Annex, Table II) P o v e r t y in th e C a r i b b e a n is e x p r e s s e d in m a n y w a y s , f o r e x a m p l e , in th e w e a k s ta tu s o f th e l a b o u r m a r k e t , th e s ta tu s o f v u l n e r a b l e g r o u p s in s o c ie t y , p o o r h e a lt h f a c i l i t i e s f o r l a r g e p o r t i o n s o f th e p o p u l a t i o n , p o o r e f f i c i e n c y a n d q u a lit y o f s o c ia l s e r v i c e s ( s a f e w a t e r s u p p ly , e le c t r ic it y , a d e q u a t e h o u s i n g ) , h i g h i n c o m e d is p a r it ie s , p o o r in fr a s t r u c t u r e in m a n y c o u n t r ie s a n d in a d e q u a t e m a i n t e n a n c e o f s a m e , c r im e a n d v i o l e n c e , s h o r t c o m i n g s in m a t te r s o f g o v e r n a n c e a n d s o c ia l w e l l - b e i n g , g e n e r a l l y . E q u i t y is a n i s s u e f o r s e r i o u s c o n s id e r a t i o n in a n y e x e r c i s e o n p o v e r t y . I n s o m e c o u n t r ie s th e q u a lit y o f s o c ia l s e r v i c e s d i f f e r s a c c o r d i n g t o s o c ia l g r o u p a n d its g e o g r a p h i c a l l o c a t i o n in s o c ie t y . I n o n e c o u n try , f o r e x a m p le , im p r o v e d im p r o v e m e n t in s o c ia l s e r v ic e s . H o w e v e r , e c o n o m i c c o n d it io n s h a v e a l l o w e d fo r som e s u c h i m p r o v e m e n t h a s n o t t a k e n p l a c e in d e p r i v e d a r e a s w h e r e l a r g e n u m b e r s o f p o o r p e o p l e a r e li v i n g . T h i s r e v i e w o f p o v e r t y in th e C a r i b b e a n w i l l e x a m i n e th e f o l l o w i n g in d ic a t o r s : 1. I n f a n t m o r t a lit y 2. M a ln u t r it io n 3. C o m m u n i c a b l e d is e a s e s 4. E m p lo y m e n t a n d in c o m e 5. E d u c a t io n 6. It w ill S o c i a l s e r v i c e s ( w a t e r a n d s a n it a t io n , h o u s i n g ) 7. N a tu ra l D isa ste rs a ls o p a y s o m e a t te n t io n t o c r im e a n d v i o l e n c e a n d th e i s s u e o f illic it d ru g s , b o th as e x p r e s s i o n s o f s o c ia l d e t e r io r a t io n in th e c o n t e x t o f p o v e r t y in C a r i b b e a n s o c ie t ie s . Infant mortality Infant and child mortality ra t e s a r e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t in d i c a t o r s o f p o v e r t y in a c o u n t r y . W h i l e th e ra te d e c l i n e d s i g n i f i c a n t ly in m o s t C a r i b b e a n c o u n t r ie s b e t w e e n p e rio d 1 9 7 0 -1 9 9 7 1 9 5 0 a n d 1 9 9 0 , th e s h o w s f lu c t u a t io n s in s o m e c o u n t r ie s a n d a n a c t u a l i n c r e a s e in th e ra t e s in D o m i n i c a , G u y a n a , St. K it t s / N e v is , S a in t L u c i a a n d S u r i n a m e in th e s e c o n d h a l f o f th e 1 9 9 0 s. I n e i g h t o u t o f th e 14 C a r i b b e a n D e v e l o p m e n t a n d C o o p e r a t i o n C o m m i t t e e ( C D C C ) c o u n t r ie s f o r w h i c h d a t a is a v a i l a b l e f o r th e y e a r s 1 9 9 4 / 1 9 9 5 a n d 1 9 9 7 , th e in f a n t m o r t a li t y ra te p e r 1 0 0 0 l i v e b ir t h s h a s in c r e a s e d o v e r th a t p e r i o d . C h ild m o r t a li t y o v e r th e sam e c o m p a ra t iv e y e a r s has in c r e a s e d in s ix o u t o f 13 c o u n t r ie s f o r w h i c h th e c o m p a r a t i v e d a t a is a v a i l a b l e . ( S e e T a b l e I I I ) . 3 S c o r e s a b o v e 5 8 f o r in f a n t m o r t a li t y a p p e a r in G u y a n a a n d H a i t i a n d a b o v e 4 5 f o r c h i ld m o r t a li t y a p p e a r in B e l i z e , D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c , G u y a n a a n d H a it i. Box 3 High Infant Mortality G uyana 59 H a it i Box 4 High Child Mortality 92 B e liz e (See Annex, Table III) A 46 D o m . R e p u b lic 53 (See Annex, Table III) b r o a d e r l o o k o v e r s e v e r a l d e c a d e s s h o w s a s i g n i f i c a n t d e c r e a s e f o r a ll c o u n t r ie s in th e C a r i b b e a n a n d , w i t h th e e x c e p t i o n o f G r e n a d a , th e d e c r e a s i n g t r e n d c o n t in u e d a ll th e w a y to 1990. (S e e C h a rt a n d T a b le I V ) . A m a r t y a S e n 1 a r g u e s th a t " t h e r e is a v e r y s t r o n g e m p i r i c a l c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n p u b l i c a n d p r iv a t e in v e s t m e n t and c h i ld n u tritio n , i m m u n iz a t i o n , m o r t a li t y c h i ld - c a r e , etc. r e d u c t io n . does It is a m p ly d r a m a t i c a ll y c o n firm e d th a t in v e s t m e n t in r e d u c e th e ra te o f c h i ld m o r t a lit y w h e n it is h ig h . E x p e r i e n c e s h a v e s h o w n h o w v e r y e f f e c t i v e e v e n r a t h e r s m a ll in v e s t m e n t s in th e se fie ld s c a n b e ." (S e n ,1 9 9 9 ). Malnutrition and communicable diseases Malnutrition and communicable diseases h a v e lo n g b e e n re c o g n iz e d as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f p o v e r t y . It is i n c r e a s i n g l y c l e a r th a t it is a l s o a c a u s e . I n s o m e p a r t s o f th e w o r l d , n o t a b ly L a t i n A m e ric a an d E a s t A s ia , th e re h a v e b e e n d r a m a t ic g a i n s in r e d u c i n g c h i ld m a ln u t r it io n . But o v e r a ll , th e a b s o lu t e n u m b e r o f m a l n o u r i s h e d c h i ld r e n w o r l d w i d e h a s g r o w n . T h e r e is a c l e a r r e la t io n s h i p (U N I C E F ), betw een m a ln u t r i t io n and c h i ld m o r t a li t y (U n it e d N a tio n s C h i l d r e n 's Fund 2 0 0 0 ). I f a c h i ld is e v e n m i l d l y u n d e r w e i g h t , th e m o r t a li t y r i s k is in c r e a s e d . T h e W o r l d H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n ( W H O ) e s t im a t e s th a t m a ln u t r i t io n w a s a s s o c ia t e d w i t h o v e r h a l f o f a ll c h i ld d e a t h s th a t o c c u r r e d in d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r ie s in 1 9 9 5 . A m o n g v a r i o u s f a c t o r s s h a r in g th e c a u s e o f c h i ld m o r t a lit y , m a ln u t r i t io n is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r 55 p e r c e n t ( U N I C E F , 1 9 9 8 ). A n o ft e n u n r e c o g n i z e d f a c t is th a t il l n e s s is f r e q u e n t ly a c o n s e q u e n c e o f m a ln u t r it io n , w h i c h in t u r n is a l s o c o m m o n ly th e r e s u lt o f illn e s s . L i t t le w id e s p re a d r e c o g n it io n of such c o rr e la tio n le a d s to i n s u f f i c i e n t a t te n t io n t o th e q u a lit y o f f o o d in t a k e g e n e r a l l y . M o r e im p o r t a n t ly , in t e r m s o f c a u s e s o f p o v e r t y , it h a s a l s o b e e n e s t a b li s h e d th a t w i d e n i n g i n c o m e d is p a r it ie s , c o u p l e d w i t h r e d u c t i o n s in s o c ia l (U N IC E F , p r o t e c t io n , are h a v in g w o rry in g e ffe c ts on th e n u t r it io n a l w e ll-b e in g of c h i ld r e n 1 9 9 8 ). D a t a o n m a ln u t r it io n , m e a s u r e d a m o n g u n d e r - f i v e s , is c a l c u la t e d o n th e b a s i s o f d a t a f o r u n d e r w e i g h t , w a s t i n g a n d s t u n t in g c h i ld r e n in a c o u n t r y . A l t h o u g h th e C a r i b b e a n r e m a in s f a r f r o m in d i c a t e s l o w th e h i g h f i g u r e s in o t h e r d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r ie s , th e t r e n d f r o m 1 9 90 to 1998 p e r c e n t a g e s e x c e p t f o r A n t i g u a a n d B a r b u d a , J a m a ic a , G u y a n a a n d H a i t i w h i c h Dr. Amartya Sen, Keynote Address, First Global Forum on Human Development, United Nations Headquarters, New York, 29-31 July 1999 4 c o u n t r ie s r e g i s t e r 10 p e r c e n t a n d m o r e u n d e r - f i v e c h i ld r e n w h o a r e u n d e r th e a v e r a g e w e i g h t f o r t h e ir a g e . ( S e e T a b l e V ) . H a i t i is th e o n l y c o u n t r y in th e C a r i b b e a n w i t h a n e x t re m e ly h ig h p r e v a l e n c e ra te w h i c h c o m p a r e s t o c o u n t r i e s l i k e , f o r e x a m p l e , A f g h a n i s t a n , a n d C e n t r a l , E a s t and S o u th e rn A fric a . n u t r it io n l e v e l s have In th e d e c lin e d C a rib b e a n , Cuba p resen ts a p e c u lia r and p o s it iv e s i g n i f i c a n t l y in th e c o n t e x t o f a s h r i n k i n g case. econom y W h ile s in c e th e b r e a k u p o f th e f o r m e r U S S R , C u b a h a s b e e n a b l e t o s u r v i v e n u t r i t i o n - w i s e t h r o u g h p u t t in g f o o d p r o d u c t i o n o n th e p r io r it y list. ( S e e B o x 6 ). Box 5 Infant Mortality Rates in the 60s and 90s 160 140 120 100 □ 1960’ s □ 1970’ s I 80 □ 1980’ s □ 1990 60 40 20 0 Gtetf ï I I iff® 1 ® jam:.aW St- v/ynce' C ountries ,6^® Qieaa( )Y>a9° Àdad 5 Box 6 CUBA: BEST PRACTICE IN FOOD INSECURITY 1990 - 1998 Cuba has seen its economy shrink and levels of undernourishment rise since losing its most important trading partner with the break-up of the former USSR. With much of its agriculture geared to producing commodities for export (primarily sugar and tobacco), Cuba has succeeded in reducing undernourishment to very low levels while relying on trade for more than half of its food. With the end of Cuba's special trading relationship with the USSR, daily food intake dropped by more than 500 calories per person, mainly because of a steep decline in food imports. Yields for major food crops also dropped because of a lack of imported fertilizer, but Cuba managed to produce nearly comparable quantities by growing food on more land. The economic decline has increased the number of people relying on subsidies while reducing productivity and food intake for many workers and their families. Continued restrictions on trade with the United States of America add to the country's economic difficulties. Cuba's setback was accompanied by a rise in the share of undernourished people from 3 to 19 per cent. Despite its recent problems, Cuba remains relatively prosperous and well-fed compared to other countries in the Caribbean and Central America. More than half the country's roads are paved and 95 per cent of the population have access to safe water. Since 1993, the Cuban Government has given priority to increasing food production and restructuring industry. Signs have begun to emerge that the new economic model is taking hold and labour markets are recovering. But the transition process is far from complete. Source: FAO, The State of Food Insecurity in the World, 1999 Communicable diseases fro m h a v e b e e n fa irly w e ll c o n t r o ll e d in th e C a r i b b e a n , as a p p e a rs o v e r a l l r e p o r t e d s i g n i f i c a n t d e c l i n e o f m o r b i d i t y d u e t o c o m m u n i c a b l e d i s e a s e s o v e r th e p e r i o d 1 9 8 0 -1 9 9 4 . ( P a n A m e r i c a n H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n ( P A H O ) , 1 9 9 7 ). T h i s f a c t in i t s e l f r e la t e s t o th e o v e r a l l d e c r e a s e o f p o v e r t y in th e r e g io n . A l s o , g e n e r a l l y , th e c o u n t r ie s h a v e i n c r e a s e d coverage of fu ll im m u n i z a t i o n of c h i ld r e n over th e p e rio d 1 9 8 1 -1 9 9 4 . (S e e T a b le V I). H I V / A I D S , w h i l e n o t c o n s i d e r e d a t r a d it io n a l c o m m u n i c a b l e d is e a s e , h a s b e e n c a t e g o r i z e d a s a "n o tifia b le d is e a s e f o r s p e c ia l s u r v e i l l a n c e " in th e C a r i b b e a n , g i v e n th e d r a m a t ic t r e n d o f a n in c r e a s i n g n u m b e r o f c a s e s in th e r e g io n . ( S e e T a b l e V I I ) . A n o t h e r r e m a r k a b l e p h e n o m e n o n is th e f a c t th at, w h i l e in th e 1 9 7 0 s a n d 1 9 8 0 s th e m a j o r c a u s e o f d e a t h in m o s t C a r i b b e a n c o u n t r ie s w o u l d b e o n e d i s e a s e o r a n o t h e r , in th e la tt e r h a l f o f th e 1 9 9 0 s a c c id e n t s , s p e c i f i c a l l y m o t o r v e h i c l e a c c id e n t s a n d v i o l e n c e - m a i n ly in y o u n g m e n f o r m th e m a j o r c a u s e o f d e a t h in m o s t c o u n t r ie s o f th e r e g io n . ( S e e T a b l e V I I I ) . W h i l e n o d a t a e x i s t o n th e n u m b e r o f p e r s o n s w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s in C a r i b b e a n c o u n t r ie s , t h e r e is n o e s t im a t e o f 6 th e p r e v a l e n c e o f d i s a b i l i t y a s a r e s u lt o f m o t o r v e h i c l e a c c id e n t in ju r ie s a n d in ju r i e s c a u s e d b y a c ts o f p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e e ith e r. It h a s b e e n e s t a b li s h e d t h o u g h , th a t m o t o r v e h i c l e i n ju r y ( M V I ) d e a t h r a te s a r e t w o t o f i v e t i m e s h i g h e r in m a l e s t h a n in f e m a le s . ( P A H O , 1 9 9 7 ). Employment and income Employment and income in d i c a t o r s a r e g e n u i n e d e t e r m in i n g f a c t o r s o f a state o f w e l l ­ b e i n g a n d p o v e r t y . E m p l o y m e n t is a m a j o r s o u r c e o f in c o m e . T h e W o r l d D e v e lo p m e n t , Copenhagen, 1995 and its several fo llo w -u p s e s s io n s S u m m it f o r S o c i a l have e m p h a s iz e d th e im p o r t a n c e o f e m p lo y m e n t in e f f o r t s t o w a r d s th e e r a d i c a t io n o f p o v e r t y . F i v e i s s u e s i d e n t i f i e d to m e e t th e e m p l o y m e n t c h a l l e n g e i n c lu d e th e c e n t r a lit y o f e m p l o y m e n t in p o l i c y f o r m u l a t i o n ; th e im p o r t a n c e of e d u c a t io n and t r a in in g in la b o u r p o lic ie s ; enhanced q u a lit y of w o rk and e m p lo y m e n t ; e n h a n c e d e m p lo y m e n t o p p o r t u n i t ie s f o r g r o u p s w i t h s p e c i f i c n e e d s , a n d a b r o a d e r r e c o g n i t i o n a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w o r k a n d e m p lo y m e n t . T h e m o v e s t o w a r d s th e l i b e r a l i z a t i o n o f w o r l d t r a d e a n d o t h e r a s p e c t s o f g l o b a l i z a t i o n p resen ted c h a l l e n g e s t o th e C a r i b b e a n in th e 1 9 9 0 s. P o l i c i e s r e g a r d i n g l a b o u r m a r k e t o r th e l a b o u r f o r c e r e q u i r e d n e g o t ia t io n s w i t h th e s o c ia l p a r t n e r s . A g r e e m e n t s a n d c o n s e n s u s a r e n o t c o n c l u d e d o v e r n i g h t a n d in f a c t a r e v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a in . T h e 1 9 8 0 s e x p e r i e n c e d m u c h e f f o r t b u t s m a ll re s u lt s . B a r b a d o s a n d S u r i n a m e m a n a g e d a b r e a k t h r o u g h f o r d iffe r e n t , y e t s o m e w h a t s i m i la r r e a s o n s . S e e m i n g l y e x t e r n a l fa c t o r s b r o u g h t c o n s e n s u s t o fr u it io n . ( S e e B o x 7 ). Box 7 Consensus for labour market and labour force policies Barbados and Suriname Conditions and factors at play for Social Pacts: • • • • • • • • • • Strong and influential Trade Union Movement. Balance of Payment difficulties and sizeable fiscal deficits. Implementation of a Structural Adjustment Programme with social consensus. Barbados concluded Social Pact with consensus and cooperation of social partners. Employers, Trade Unions and Government set specific targets for key economic issues, including, among others, an exchange rate regime, price stability, and real wages. The Suriname government included several members of the Trade Union Movement and the Labour Party, but a formal Social Pact was never concluded. Presence of the Trade Union Movement in government, however, signalled an atmosphere for cooperation. Targets for key economic issues (exchange rate regime, price stability, real wages, etc.), however, were not agreed upon in an open bargaining process. Discussion on adjustment policies diverged on the issue of the exchange rate regime in both countries. Barbados sought to provide stability during the process of stabilization, resulting in sustained growth. Suriname opted to float the currency, which led to an unmanageable fall of real wages, erosion of social protection systems and heavy contraction of social spending. Source: ILO Globalization and Employment in the Caribbean, August 1999 7 Box 8 Unemployment Rates in the Bahamas 35 -,-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30 25 T O 20 ■ M ale □ Fem ale □ Y o u th male □ Y o u th Fem ale 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Years Box 9 Unemployment Rates in Barbados 60 50 40 ■ M ale □ Fem ale 30 o □ Y o u th male Q. □ Y o u th Fem ale E 20 10 0 1991 1992 1993 1994 Years « 1995 1996 m 1997 8 Box 10 Unemployment Rates in Jamaica 60 50 40 ■ Male □ Female E 30 20 10 0 1991 1a i a a a 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 □ Youth male □ Youth Female 1997 Years Box 11 Unemployment Rates in Trinidad and Tobago 45 40 35 30 O l r ■ M ale 25 □ F e m a le □ Y o u t h m ale a. 20 □ Y o u t h F em a le 15 10 5 0 1991 1992 1993 199 4 Years 1995 1996 1997 9 O v e r th e p a s t D e c a d e m o s t c o u n t r ie s h a v e e m p lo y m e n t and in c o m e , m o re th an w as done s e e n a n im p r o v e m e n t in s k i ll s t r a in in g f o r in th e p a s t. S p e c ia l t r a in in g p ro gra m m es, e s p e c i a l l y f o r p e o p l e w i t h s p e c i f i c n e e d s , h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d in s e v e r a l c o u n t r ie s , f o r e x a m p l e th e Y o u t h T r a i n i n g a n d E m p l o y m e n t P a r t n e r s h i p P r o g r a m m e ( Y T E P P ) in T r i n i d a d & th e H u m a n E m p lo y m e n t and R esou rce T ra in in g T ru st (H E A R T ) in J a m a ic a , Tobago, S o c ia l Im p a c t A m e l i o r a t i o n P r o g r a m m e ( S I M A P ) in G u y a n a , th e " F u n d a s h o n p a E d u k a s h o n i F o r m a s h o n d i F ish i i K a p a s it a s h o n " T r a n s fo r m a t io n L t d . ( F E F F I K ) in C u r a ç a o , N e t h e r l a n d s A n t i l l e s , a n d th e A g e n c y (A R T ) in G r e n a d a and several o t h e r p r o g r a m m e s in fo r R u ral o t h e r c o u n t r ie s , in w h i c h th e c h a n g i n g n e e d s o f th e l a b o u r m a r k e t h a v e s ta r te d t o b e i n t e g r a t e d in t o t h e s e s y s t e m s . These e ff o r t s , g ro w in g i f s e r i o u s ly g e a r e d t o w a r d s th e c h a n g i n g k n o w le d g e -b a s e d w o rk e n v iro n m e n t, are needs o f th e l a b o u r m a r k e t a n d th e c e n t r a l f o r th e s u b r e g io n to k e e p up w it h g lo b a liz a t io n . A s a n o t h e r a v e n u e t o a r r e s t p o v e r t y b y h a v i n g p e o p l e w o r k i n g a n d e m p l o y e d , th e th ru s t t o p r o m o t e m i c r o a n d s m a ll e n t e r p r is e h a s b e e n e m b r a c e d b y m a n y c o u n t r ie s in th e r e g i o n . I n th e 1 9 9 0 s, s u p p o r t t o m ic r o , c o u n t r ie s , not o n ly by s m a ll n a t io n a l and a ls o to m e d iu m -s iz e d govern m en ts but by e n t e r p r is e s h a s in c r e a s e d in t e r n a t io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n s in m a n y and donor a g e n c i e s , a s w e l l . T h e r e is m u c h h o p e th a t th e f u t u r e w i l l s e e its p o s i t i v e im p a c t o n th e s it u a t io n o f p o v e rty . The d a t a f o r th e 1990s show s th a t l e v e l s c o u n t r ie s d u r i n g th e d e c a d e . I n d e e d , T a b l e I X o f u n e m p lo y m e n t h a v e flu c tu a te d in m ost g i v e s u s a v a r i e d i m p r e s s i o n o f th e s u b r e g i o n a l s it u a t io n r e g a r d i n g u n e m p l o y m e n t o v e r a p e r i o d o f s e v e n y e a r s . A m o n g 12 C a r i b b e a n c o u n t r ie s , B a r b a d o s a p p e a r s w i t h th e h i g h e s t ra te o f u n e m p l o y m e n t (2 3 p e r c e n t ) in 1 9 9 0 . A t th e s a m e tim e , B a r b a d o s m a i n t a i n e d th e s e c o n d h i g h e s t ra te o f d e c r e a s e in th e l e v e l o f u n e m p l o y m e n t o v e r th e p e r io d 1993 - 1 9 9 8 . ( S e e C h a r t a n d T a b l e X ) . T h i s is n o t e w o r t h y a n d p o i n t s p e r h a p s t o v a r i o u s fa c t o r s , o n e o f w h i c h m a y w e l l b e th e q u e s t io n o f g o o d g o v e r n a n c e . O n e o u t s t a n d in g fe a t u r e is th e p e r s is t e n t h i g h l e v e l o f y o u t h u n e m p l o y m e n t a n d th e h i g h num ber o f w om en u n e m p l o y m e n t is am ong h ig h and th e u n e m p lo y e d . h i g h e r th a n m a le It s h o u ld be n o te d u n e m p l o y m e n t in th o u gh , m any th a t w h i l e c o u n t r ie s , th e fe m a le fe m a le p a r t ic i p a t io n r a te in th e l a b o u r f o r c e h a s b e e n c o n s is t e n t ly l o w e r t h a n m a l e p a r t ic i p a t io n o v e r th e p e rio d 19 92 - 1998. (S e e C h a rt an d T a b le X I ). I n s o m e C a r i b b e a n c o u n t r ie s , p o v e r t y h a s s p r e a d t o i n c l u d e e v e n p e o p l e w i t h j o b s in th e f o r m a l e c o n o m y , o ft e n a s a r e s u lt o f e x t e r n a ll y i m p o s e d s tr u c t u ra l a d ju s t m e n t m e a s u r e s f r o m w h i c h g o v e r n m e n t s c o u l d n o t a b s t a in ( S u r i n a m e , J a m a ic a , th e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c a n d m o s t r e c e n t ly th e N e t h e r l a n d s A n t i l l e s ) . Thus e v e n th e n o n - i n d e p e n d e n t C D C C m e m b e r c o u n t r ie s h a v e b e e n a f f e c t e d in t h is w a y . M any o f th e p o o r a r e e m p l o y e d in th e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r a n d a t th e b o t t o m l e v e l s o f th e a g r ic u lt u r a l s e c to r. T h e s e p e o p l e a r e o ft e n r e f e r r e d t o a s " t h e w o r k i n g p o o r " , m e a n i n g th a t t h e ir w o r k f a i l s t o p r o v i d e a n i n c o m e f r o m w h i c h t h e y c a n l iv e . F u r t h e r m o r e , s o m e w o r k i n g p e o p l e at th e b o t t o m o f th e w a g e s c a le s ( c l e r k s , u n s k i l l e d o f f i c e a s s is ta n ts , d r iv e r s , m e s s e n g e r s , t e a c h e r s a n d n u r s e s ) in th e f o r m a l e c o n o m y h a v e b e c o m e th e s o - c a l l e d " n e w p o o r " a s t h e ir p o v e r t y is th e c o n s e q u e n c e o f e r o s i o n o f r e a l w a g e s . I n th e s e c o n d h a l f o f th e 1 9 8 0 s a n d r i g h t t h r o u g h th e 10 1 9 9 0 s t h is s it u a t io n h a s a f f e c t e d t h e s e s e g m e n t s o f th e w o r k f o r c e in G u y a n a , J a m a ic a , S u r i n a m e , th e B r i t i s h V i r g i n I s la n d s a n d , r e c e n t ly , th e N e t h e r l a n d s A n t i l l e s . Am ong th e f i n d i n g s o f p o v e rty a ssessm en ts u n d e rta k e n in th e C a rib b e a n in th e la te 1 9 9 0 s , th e f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s h a v e b e e n m a d e : • T h e h u m a n c a p it a l b a s e o f th e p o o r , i n c l u d i n g l e v e l o f e d u c a t io n , is l o w . A s a r e s u lt , a c c e s s i b l e e m p lo y m e n t is in l o w - s k i l l , l o w - p a y i n g j o b s . • The poor te n d to be e m p lo y e d in e le m e n ta ry o c c u p a t io n s , ru ral e n t e r p r is e s , fo r e x a m p l e , s m a l l - s c a l e f a r m i n g , c r a f t - w o r k a n d a r a n g e o f o t h e r i n f o r m a l a c t iv it ie s . • S t r u c t u r a l a d ju s t m e n t p o l i c i e s in s o m e o f th e C a r i b b e a n c o u n t r ie s h a v e r e s u lt e d in an in c r e a s e in u n e m p l o y m e n t a n d a r i s e in th e i n c i d e n c e a n d s e v e r it y o f p o v e r t y . • The poor re s id e in la r g e h o u s e h o ld s , w h ic h are c h a ra c te riz e d by h ig h le v e ls of w h ic h is u n e m p lo y m e n t , e s p e c ia lly a m o n g y o u n g a n d f e m a le m e m b e rs . • T h ere is som e e v id e n c e of in t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l tr a n s fe r of p o v e rty , u n d e r s t a n d a b l e w h e n a ll m e m b e r s o f th e h o u s e h o l d t e n d t o b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y l o w e d u c a t io n a l l e v e l s a n d s k ills . • W h ere p o v e rty is co n ce n trate d in id e n t ifia b le c o m m u n it i e s , th e r e is e v id e n c e of s t ig m a t iz a t io n , w h i c h r e s u lt s in e m p lo y m e n t d is c r i m in a t io n . T h i s h a s , f o r e x a m p l e , b e e n th e c a s e in J a m a ic a a n d G u y a n a . A s a r e s u lt o f n o t b e i n g n e e d e d o r w a n t e d in w o r k p l a c e s , g e n e r a l l y , o r a l s o f o r a c h o i c e o f p re fe re n c e to be in d e p e n d e n t , som e p o o r p e o p le have o ft e n re so rted to in fo rm a l e c o n o m ic a c t iv it ie s s u c h a s h i g g l e r i n g a n d h u c k s t e r in g b e t w e e n is l a n d s , s i d e w a l k t r a d in g , s tre e t s e r v i c e s s u c h a s c a r w a s h , etc. e it h e r f o r t h e ir o w n a c c o u n t o r i n f o r m a l l y e m p l o y e d b y o t h e r s e n g a g e d in i n f o r m a l a c t iv it ie s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , th e p r o s p e c t o f l a r g e , q u i c k c a s h h a s l e d a n u m b e r o f p e o p l e , e s p e c i a l l y y o u n g p e r s o n s , in t o p r a c t ic e s r e la t e d t o th e d r u g tr a d e . T h e o u t c r y a n d p l e a o f a y o u n g b o y w h o fin is h e d s c h o o l a n d h a s b e e n u n a b le to fin d a j o b c o u ld b e s h a re d b y m a n y . (S e e B o x 1 2 ). Som e becam e c o u n t r ie s a v a ila b le . m oved P o v e rty to ta k e a lle v ia t io n a c t io n or soon s o c ia l B a r b a d o s , J a m a ic a , G u y a n a a n d S a in t L u c i a . a ft e r th e in v e s t m e n t r e s u lt s fu n d s o f p o v e rty have been a ssessm en ts e s t a b li s h e d in S k i l ls t r a in in g p r o g r a m m e s h a v e b e e n in s t it u t e d in m o s t c o u n t r ie s in o r d e r t o p r o v i d e l a b o u r m a r k e t p a r t ic ip a n t s w i t h s k i ll s t o e n h a n c e t h e ir e a r n in g c a p a c it y . ( S e e B o x 7 ). T r a i n i n g to a l a r g e e x te n t, h o w e v e r , t o o k p l a c e in t r a d it io n a l, l o w - s k i l l a r e a s . I n v e r y f e w c a s e s t r a in in g w a s e x t e n d e d t o th e m i d d l e r a n g e o f th e s k ill s p e c t r u m , f o r e x a m p l e , c o m p u t i n g , c o m p u t e r s e r v i c i n g a n d o t h e r s k i lls i n c r e a s i n g l y r e q u i r e d o n th e k n o w l e d g e - b a s e d j o b m a r k e t . 11 Box 12 Education and Poverty T h e r e g i o n a l t r e n d in th e 1 9 9 0 s to stren gth en C a r ib b e a n e c o n o m ie s a n d s t im u la t e e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t m ovem ent in th e to w ard s in c re a s e d grow th fa c e of th e g lo b a liz a t io n c o m p e t i t io n in t e r n a t io n a l and m ark et and on w as th e lo o k in g f o r w a r d t o c h a n n e l l i n g th e a c t iv it ie s o f th e in fo r m a l sector in t o th e fo r m a l s e c t o r . I t w a s e x p e c t e d th a t th e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r w o u l d h a v e a n in c r e a s e d a b i li t y t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f n e w o p p o r t u n i t ie s and th e fo rm a l stre n g th e n e d w o u ld enhance q u a lit y o f life 1 9 9 8 ). To is l a n d of in exten t it has an and p ro sp ec t o f th e D o m in ic a , m o re r e g io n . and i n t e r -is l a n d th e tra n s fo rm e d in fo r m a l th e w it h in The in in t e r ­ in fo r m a liz e d goods e x is te d th e (T e w a r i, th is case now be p r o d u c t i v it y econom y th e in th e th e as 1970s th e p e r is h a b le o u ts id e trad e fro m in trad ers co n text trad e w o u ld h ig h e r in th e r e g io n . som e m a t e r i a li z e d sector and 1980s and s i g n i f i c a n t ly s e c to r to a f o r m a l, m o r e m e c h a n i z e d e c o n o m i c a c t iv it y in w h ic h p e o p le are t r a n s f o r m a t io n d ecre ased e m p lo y e d . has a ls o p a r t ic i p a t io n T h is im p lie d o f w om en a and a n in c r e a s e d p a r t ic i p a t io n o f m e n . The following letter was sent to the Editor of NEWSDAY in Trinidad and Tobago. "I am a young adult who completed secondary school two years ago without any passes. Aware of the benefits of a proper education, I am now computer literate and have learned basic Spanish. Because of my limited education I have not been able to find a job since I left school. I really need a job so that I can pay for O'Level classses. My parents can't afford the fees so I have to pay for the classes myself, which I don't mind. I don't want pity, ole talk, money or lecture. All I request is some sensible advice. How can I get a job to pay for O'Level classes when I need the O'Level passes to get the job in the first place? I don't know anyone of influence and no influential person knows me. My parents don't own a company and are not on the Board of any, so nepotism and favoritism are out of the question. I am not interested in doing anything illegal or immoral. I don't have a criminal record or an unfavourable reputation and it's going to remain that way. I can't take out a loan. I have walked the pavement seeking employment and prayed. I have never even been on a job interview. I would like to contribute to my country through education and a decent legal job, but I can't do this just sitting at home doing nothing. Would someone who has been where I am at present and positively overcame this situation please extend some sensible, realistic advice that I can immediately put into action. Please respond, I am desperately waiting on advice." S p e c ific econom y d ata p a r t ic i p a t io n on is in fo rm a l still d iffic u lt t o o b t a in , b e c a u s e o f th e v e r y n a t u r e o f th e a c t iv it y . H o w e v e r, s ta tis tic s o n o w n u n p a id w o rk ers c o m p o u n d in g Source: Newsday, Wednesday June 14, 2000 accou n t w o rk e rs and m ay s o m e tim e s a llo w f o r a n im p r e s s i o n i s t i c n o t i o n o f th e n u m b e r o f p e o p l e i n v o l v e d in th e i n f o r m a l e c o n o m y . T h e sector r e m a in s a t t r a c t iv e to m any because of th e e x is te n c e of p r o fit a b le i n d e p e n d e n c e in t e r m s o f w o r k i n g h o u r s , l a b o u r m a r k e t f l e x i b i l i t y a n d f r e e d o m o p p o r t u n it ie s , fro m im p o s e d r e g u la t i o n s . Education Education - A l t h o u g h e d u c a t io n h a s a l w a y s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d im p o r t a n t , t h e r e is a n e w , u r g e n t a n d m o r e f o r c e f u l t h in k in g a b o u t th e s e r i o u s n e e d f o r a d e q u a t e e d u c a t io n . E d u c a t i o n is 12 now seen as one o f th e m a i n d e t e r m in a n t s f o r l o n g - t e r m d e v e l o p m e n t p o t e n t ia ls n a t io n a lly , r e g io n a lly a n d g lo b a lly . T h e n e w p attern s o f p ro d u c tio n m o v e t o w a r d s k n o w le d g e - b a s e d w o r k , w h ic h im p lie s changes in th e o r g a n iz a t io n o f w o rk and m an a gem en t. I t is w i d e l y f e l t th a t e d u c a t io n n e e d s to b e r e d e f i n e d a n d th a t its f o c u s h a s t o c h a n g e . T h e r e is n o e s c a p i n g f r o m th e t e c h n o l o g i c a l r e v o l u t i o n a n d n e w d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s e s th a t s h a p e th e g l o b a l i z e d w o r l d t o d a y . C a rib b e a n p e o p le need a n e d u c a t io n th a t is m a r k e t a b le a n d fi t t i n g to th e c h a n g i n g n e e d s o f p r o d u c t i o n , i n c l u d i n g c o m m e r c e , in d u s t r y a n d s e r v ic e s . A t th e m o m e n t t h e r e m a y b e h i g h l e v e l s o f u n e m p lo y m e n t , yet c r it ic a l sh o rtages o f t e c h n i c a l ly t r a in e d la b o u r in key sectors o f th e r e g i o n 's e c o n o m y . It is o ft e n p o i n t e d o u t, f o r e x a m p l e in th e h o s p i t a lit y in d u s t r y o n w h i c h m a n y C a r i b b e a n e c o n o m i e s d e p e n d , th a t th e l a b o u r f o r c e is u n r e s p o n s i v e t o n e w p r o d u c t i o n p a t t e r n s in th e h o s p i t a lit y a n d r e la t e d s e r v i c e s in d u s t r ie s , a s th e e d u c a t io n s y s t e m f a i l s t o b u i l d th e r e q u i r e d c a p a c i t y a n d s k ills . S e v e ral fo c u s e d on p r o je c t s o f te c h n ic a l e d u c a t io n . U p a s s is t a n c e to govern m en ts over u n t il th e p r e s e n t t im e , n o n e o f t h e m th e past decades have o n w h i c h th e i n f o r m a t i o n is a c c e s s i b le , h a s f o c u s e d o n b u i l d i n g a n e w y o u n g l a b o u r f o r c e th a t w i l l b e c a p a b l e o f f i l l i n g th e g a p s in th e p r e s e n t - d a y a n d f u t u r e d e m a n d f o r k n o w l e d g e - b a s e d la b o u r . M a n y p r o je c t s h a v e b e e n f u n d e d b y v a r i o u s a g e n c i e s in th e r e g i o n , b u t th e m a j o r it y is c o n c e r n e d w i t h in fr a s t r u c t u r e , th e b u i l d i n g o r u p g r a d i n g o f s c h o o ls o r th e p h y s i c a l e q u i p m e n t o f s a m e . P e r h a p s B a r b a d o s , w i t h its f o c u s o n I n f o r m a t i o n T e c h n o l o g y in s e v e r a l p r o je c t s is a n e x c e p t i o n in t h is r e g a r d . Box 13 Sam ple of education project com ponents in th e C arib bean in the 1990s Revision of Curriculum X X X X X X Teacher Training Scholarships Materials X X Dominican Republic Haiti Trinidad and Tobago Infrastructure X X Country Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Barbados Cuba Admin. Capacity X X X X X X Other/Notes Information technology integration in all project components X X National education plan Educational equity building Source: ECLAC, SIDS Database Social services Housing and squatting r e la t i v e l y g o o d . A s s o c ia l p o l i c y o v e rc ro w d in g , G e n e r a lly th e s ta tu s o f h o u s in g in th e C a rib b e a n has b een a f a v o u r i t e p o l i t i c a l t o o l, h o u s i n g in d i c a t o r s h a v e a s s u m e d p r o m i n e n c e in at v a r i o u s p e r i o d s in th e h is t o r y o f c o u n t r i e s in th e r e g io n . I s s u e s o f s q u a t t in g , in c r e a s e d dem and fo r h o u s in g and re d u c tio n o f h o u s in g sto c k d u e to n atu ral d is a s t e r s h a v e , o n a n d o f f , p l a y e d a r o le . C o u n tr ie s w it h a la r g e in flu x o f m ig r a n t s te n d to have m o re p r o b le m s o f a v a ila b le h o u s i n g . I n th e 1 9 9 0 s , th is h a s b e e n th e s it u a t io n in s o m e C a r i b b e a n c o u n t r ie s , i n v a r i a b l y in th e 13 m o r e p r o s p e r o u s o n e s , s u c h a s th e B r i t i s h V i r g i n I s la n d s a n d th e N e t h e r l a n d s A n t i l l e s . I n M aarten th e s o c ia l co n ce rn a r is e s fro m th e fa c t th a t m any m ig r a n t s fro m H a it i and St. th e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c m a k e t h e ir h o m e in c o n t a in e r f a c ilit i e s . I n C u r a ç a o , a s u r v e y is u n d e r w a y to b e t t e r d e t e r m in e th e h o u s i n g n e e d s . W h i l e A r u b a m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d a m o n g th e m o r e p r o s p e r o u s is l a n d s in th e r e g io n , th is co u n try has c a r e fu lly m o n it o r e d im m i g r a t i o n , th u s p r e -e m p t in g p r o b l e m s in t h is r e g a r d . I n g e n e r a l , p la n s a n d p o l i c i e s th a t a r e n o w in p l a c e c a n b e s t r e n g t h e n e d b y m o r e e f f e c t i v e s y s t e m s t o a c c u r a t e ly m e a s u r e h o u s i n g c o n d it io n s . B e s i d e s th e b a s i c d a t a th a t s p e a k t o h o u s i n g t e n u r e a n d m a t e r i a ls o f w a l l s a n d r o o f s , etc ., t h e r e is a n e e d , f o r e x a m p l e , f o r a m o r e s y s t e m a t ic m o n i t o r i n g o f s q u a t t in g a n d f o r m e a s u r i n g th e i n c i d e n c e o f o v e r c r o w d e d h o u s e h o ld s . T h e p r o b l e m o f s q u a t t in g is w i d e s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t th e r e g i o n a n d s p e a k s t o th e i n a b il it y o f th e f o r m a l h o u s i n g s e c t o r t o p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e l y f o r l o w - i n c o m e g r o u p s in n e e d o f s h e lte r. T h is h a s b e c o m e a p r o b le m and h a s r e s u lt e d in th e n e e d f o r p o l i c y G u y a n a , H a i t i , C u b a , J a m a ic a a n d T r i n i d a d a n d T o b a g o . a c t io n in c o u n t r ie s li k e (S e e T a b le s X I I an d X I I I ). By and la r g e , s q u a t t e r c o m m u n it i e s d o n o t h a v e th e n e c e s s a r y in fr a s t r u c t u r e t o s u p p o r t t h e ir p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h is o ft e n r e s u lt s in p o o r h e a lt h c o n d it io n s a n d o t h e r s o c ia l ills . T h e s e a re in v a r ia b ly o n ly d e a lt w i t h b y p o l i c y m a k e r s w h e n t h e y a c h i e v e d i m e n s i o n s th a t d ir e c t ly a f f e c t th e r e s t o f s o c ie t y . G o vern m en ts have, th e re fo re , o ft e n fo u n d t h e m s e lv e s in a q u an d a ry , s o m e tim e s c h a m p i o n i n g th e c a u s e o f th e s q u a t t e r a n d at o t h e r t i m e s c r it i c i z i n g th is d e v e l o p m e n t a s i l l e g a l a n d im m o r a l. A t a p re ss c o n fe re n c e o n 3 0 M a r c h E n v i r o n m e n t in J a m a ic a , E a s t o n D o u g l a s , 1 9 9 4 , th e M i n i s t e r o f P u b l i c S e r v i c e a n d th e s ta te d th a t " w h i l e th e re m a y be re q u e sts to s e ttle s q u a t t e r is s u e s , a l a s t i n g a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e s o lu t io n c a n o n l y c o m e o v e r t i m e " ( L . A l a n E y r e 1 9 9 7 , p g . 9 9 ). Water - W a t e r r e s o u r c e s m a n a g e m e n t f a c e s m a n y c h a l l e n g e s in th e C a r i b b e a n w i t h its s m a ll i s l a n d c h a r a c t e r is t ic s . O n e s u c h c h a l l e n g e is to m a n a g e w a t e r r e s o u r c e s in s u c h a w a y th a t it m a x i m i z e s its c o n t r ib u t i o n to th e e r a d i c a t io n o f p o v e rty in th e s u b r e g io n . An in t e g r a t e d a p p r o a c h o f a ll s e c t o r s , s u c h a s w a t e r a n d s e w e r a g e , a g r ic u lt u r e , e n v i r o n m e n t , h e a lt h , p la n n i n g a n d f i n a n c e , p u b l i c a w a r e n e s s , e d u c a t io n a n d t r a in in g , c o m m u n i t y p a r t ic i p a t io n a n d in f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y is i m p e r a t i v e f o r s t r a t e g ic a c t io n to t a k e p la c e . A s p o p u l a t i o n s c h a n g e a n d d e m a n d s in c r e a s e t h e r e is a c o r r e s p o n d i n g n e e d t o i n c r e a s e c le a n , s a f e w a t e r s u p p lie s . D e s p it e th e m uch a c c la im e d and em braced U n it e d N a tio n s P la n o f A c tio n t a r g e t in g " W a t e r f o r A l l in th e Y e a r 2 0 0 0 " , th e y e a r 2 0 0 0 is h e r e a n d s o m e C a r i b b e a n c o u n t r i e s h a v e n o t y et re ach ed e c o n o m ic a lly a 50 p e r cent c o v e ra g e w eak, as w e ll as le s s o f h o u s e h o ld s w it h w eak c o u n t r ie s . An a c c e ss to o v e rv ie w s a fe w a te r. T h is o f coverage in i n c lu d e s s e le c t e d c o u n t r ie s is p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e X I V . L a c k o f a c c e s s o r p o o r a c c e s s t o w a t e r - f o r e x a m p l e o n l y fr o m a s t a n d p ip e at a c c e s s ib le d is t a n c e - m a y be a t t r ib u t e d t o a v a r ie t y o f f a c t o r s , b u t it is i n v a r i a b l y th e p o o r e r s e g m e n t o f th e p o p u l a t i o n th a t f a l l s in t o t h is b r a c k e t . C a r i b b e a n c o u n t r ie s h a v e s e v e r a l k i n d s o f c o n s t r a in t s t o m a i n t a i n a d e q u a t e l e v e l s o f s a f e w a t e r s u p p l y a n d s a n it a t io n f o r a ll. 14 W h i l e it is t r u e th a t s o m e C a r i b b e a n c o u n t r ie s a r e b l e s s e d w i t h s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t it ie s o f fre sh w ater d is t r ib u t io n to s u p p ly o f w ater, a ll o ft e n th e fu n d a m e n ta l due to th e needs lo c a tio n o f th e o f t h is p o p u l a t io n , re so u rce th e re and to is no e q u ity s e a s o n a lit y in fa c t o r s . C o u n t r i e s w i t h o u t n a t u r a l f r e s h w a t e r s u p p l y n e e d t o i n v e s t m u c h c a p it a l t o p r o c e s s w a t e r f r o m th e s e a o r tr e a t w a t e r f r o m o th e r so u rc es. In som e c o u n t r ie s , th e s it u a t io n is a g g r a v a t e d b y e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e g r a d a t io n . T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f S a in t V i n c e n t a n d th e G r e n a d i n e s r e p o r t s th a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 9 0 p e r c e n t o f th e p o p u l a t i o n h a v e a c c e s s t o w a t e r . H o w e v e r , a b o u t 4 5 p e r c e n t o f h o u s e h o l d s d o n o t h a v e a n y a c c e p t a b l e m e t h o d o f s e w e r a g e d is p o s a l . T h r e e p e r c e n t a r e c o n n e c t e d t o a c o n t r o l s e w e r a g e system . I n H a i t i , b e c a u s e o f d e f o r e s t a t i o n a n d c o n s e q u e n t s o il e r o s i o n , a b o u t 10 p e r c e n t o f to ta l r a i n f a ll goes in t o deep p e rc o la tio n and gro u n d w a te r. The o th e r 9 0 per cen t ru n s o ff o r is e v a p o r a t e d . T h e l a r g e m a j o r it y o f th e p o p u l a t i o n h a s n o a c c e s s t o w a t e r . I n 1 9 9 5 , f o r e x a m p l e , H a i t i u s e d o n l y 18 p e r c e n t o f th e a v a i l a b l e w a t e r r e s o u r c e s . ( C a r i b b e a n C o u n c i l f o r S c i e n c e a n d T e c h n o l o g y ( C C S T ) / W o r l d B a n k , 1 9 9 7 ). T h e s it u a t io n f o r th e p o o r h a s , h o w e v e r , i m p r o v e d o v e r t w o d e c a d e s , b u t a v a i l a b i l i t y o f p o t a b l e w a t e r r e m a in s p o o r . I n t e r e s t in g ly th e r u r a l a r e a s w h i c h h a d o n l y 8 .0 p e r c e n t c o v e r a g e in 1 9 8 0 r e a c h e d 3 9 .0 p e r c e n t c o v e r a g e b y 1 9 9 5 . ( S e e T a b l e X V ) Box 14 Water use -vs- available water resource in Haiti 1995 R esou rces T o tal use ( x 10 /m 3/ y r) ( x 10 /m 3/ y r) 1 2 ,6 0 0 A T o tal n eed s ( x 10 /m 3/ y r) 2 ,2 2 9 .4 1 ,2 6 6 .9 S u b r e g i o n a l S e m i n a r o n I n t e g r a t e d W a t e r R e s o u r c e s M a n a g e m e n t : (I n s t i t u t io n a l a n d P o l i c y R e f o r m ) , h e l d in T r i n i d a d & T o b a g o in 1 9 9 7 i n c lu d e d in its c o n c l u s i o n s th a t C a r i b b e a n i s l a n d s s h o u l d c o n s i d e r th e f o l l o w i n g : • T h e r e is a s t r o n g n e e d t o d e v e l o p o n g o in g d ata c o l le c t i o n and in -h o u s e a n a ly s i s fo r c a p a b i li t i e s t o p ro p e r p la n n in g c o n d u c t lo n g -t e r m and d e v e lo p m e n t and and m a n a g e m e n t. • P r o v is io n of Law s, R e g u la tio n s and a l lo c a t i o n of r e s p o n s i b i li t i e s fo r p ro p e r g r o u n d w a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t a n d m a n a g e m e n t s h o u l d g o h a n d in h a n d w i t h a l lo c a t i o n o f t r a in e d a n d q u a l i f i e d m a n p o w e r t o c a r r y o u t th e r e q u i r e d f u n c t i o n s a n d e n f o r c e m e n t o f th e l a w s . 15 • U s e o f c o m p u te r m o d e ls re q u ir e s a lo t o f d a ta f o r m o d e l d e v e lo p m e n t, c a lib r a tio n a n d v e r if i c a t i o n . • P u b l i c e d u c a t io n a n d i n f o r m a t i o n d is s e m in a t io n s h o u l d n o t b e li m i t e d to d r o u g h t o r e m e r g e n c y s it u a t io n s . ( C C S T / W o r l d B a n k , 1 9 9 7 ). National disasters - T h e h u r r i c a n e s o f th e 1 9 9 0 s , in a d d i t i o n to t a k i n g l iv e s , h a v e l e f t m a n y p e o p l e h o m e l e s s , w i t h n o a c c e s s t o s a f e w a t e r s u p p l y a n d c u t o f f f r o m a f f o r d a b l e a c c e s s to fo o d . In som e c o u n t r ie s th e re have been c a s u a lt ie s and in ju r ie s , m ost n o te w o rth y in th e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c . I m m e d i a t e r e l i e f a c t io n h a s p r e v e n t e d fu r t h e r d e t e r io r a t io n o f th e s o c ia l w e l l - b e i n g o f th e p o p u l a t i o n in m o s t c a s e s . H o w e v e r , p h y s i c a l , in fr a s t r u c t u r a l, a g r ic u lt u r a l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l d a m a g e s h a v e l o n g ­ t e r m e f f e c t s , w h i c h p a r t i c u la r ly a f f e c t p e o p l e in p o v e r t y a n d t h o s e w h o b e c a m e p o o r b e c a u s e o f l o s s o f r e s o u r c e s s u f f e r e d a s a r e s u lt o f h u r r ic a n e s . S u c h r e s o u r c e s i n c lu d e h o m e s , ( b a c k y a r d ) f o o d p r o d u c t i o n , h e a lt h , s c h o o ls , p o w e r s u p p ly . I n s o m e c o u n t r ie s , f o r e x a m p l e th e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c , it t a k e s a v e r y l o n g t im e b e f o r e th e p o p u l a t io n , a g a in , e s p e c i a l l y th e p o o r s e g m e n t o f th e p o p u l a t io n , w i l l b e a b l e t o b e n e f i t f r o m p o w e r s u p p ly . T h e c o u n t r y c o n t in u e s t o s u f f e r f r o m d a i l y b l a c k o u t s t o t h is d a y . T h e is l a n d o f M o n t s e r r a t , w h i c h s u f f e r e d h e a v i l y f r o m h u r r i c a n e H u g o in 1 9 8 9 , e n t e r e d th e 1 9 9 0 s w i t h e r u p t io n s o f th e S o u f r i e r e H i l l s v o l c a n o w h i c h h a d b e e n d o r m a n t f o r 3 0 0 y e a r s . I n 1995 m any p e o p le w e r e d is p la c e d and s o m e r e lo c a t e d a s a p r e c a u t io n . M a n y o f th ose w h o r e t u r n e d t o t h e ir h o m e s in 1 9 9 6 , w h e n th e v o l c a n o s e e m e d t o re st, w e r e f o r c e d t o l e a v e a g a i n soon a fte r. The s a m e y e a r c a u s e d th e fi r s t 2 5 c a s u a lt ie s . v o l c a n o , o t h e r s w e r e d e c l a r e d u n s a f e t o l i v e in . I n S o m e v illa g e s w e r e b u r ie d by th e 1 9 9 7 , e m i s s i o n s o f a c i d r a in c a u s e d s e r i o u s e n v i r o n m e n t a l d a m a g e a n d m a d e th e i s l a n d a d a n g e r o u s p l a c e t o l i v e in . M a s s i v e r e lo c a t io n s t o o k p la c e to n e ig h b o u r in g A n t i g u a a n d B a r b u d a a n d o v e rs e a s . P e o p l e 's l i v e l i h o o d s h a v e b e e n s e r i o u s ly a f f e c t e d t h r o u g h d a m a g e t o a g r ic u lt u r a l p r o d u c e , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e g a r d t o b a n a n a p la n t a t io n s a n d th e s u g a r c a n e c r o p , t h r o u g h l o s s o f h a b ita t , p o w e r s u p p ly , in fr a s t r u c t u r e a n d c a s u a lt ie s , d i s e a s e s a n d in ju r ie s s u f f e r e d , a ll o f w h i c h have l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t s o n m a n y a s p e c t s o f life . ( S e e T a b l e X V I ) . Illicit drugs, violence and crime Illicit drugs - T h e s m a ll s iz e o f m o s t C a r i b b e a n c o u n t r ie s , th e l o c a t i o n o f th e C a r i b b e a n s u b r e g i o n in b e t w e e n th e t w o l a r g e r p a r t s o f th e W e s t e r n H e m i s p h e r e a n d th e in t e n s i v e t r a f f i c o f p e o p l e a n d g o o d s in th e s u b r e g i o n m a k e th e s u b r e g i o n p r o n e t o d r u g t r a f f i c k i n g . ( G r i f f i t h , 1 9 9 7 ). At th e sam e t im e a g ro w in g num ber o f fa m ilie s are b e c o m in g p oo r. The phenom enon of c o n s p i c u o u s c o n s u m p t i o n d r i v e s m a n y t o w a r d s t h is a lt e r n a t iv e s o u r c e o f in c o m e , d e s p it e th e r is k s i n v o l v e d . T h e y a r e o ft e n in s e a r c h o f a b e t t e r q u a lit y o f l i f e f o r t h e m s e lv e s a n d f o r t h e ir fa m i li e s . 16 The la rg e s t C a r ib b e a n d ru g s e iz u r e s in th e 1990s w e re in B e l i z e and G uyana. B o th c o u n t r ie s s e r v e a s tr a n s it p o in t s . T r a n s it , h o w e v e r , a l s o c r e a t e s o p p o r t u n i t y f o r l o c a l c o n s u m p t i o n o f i l l i c i t s u b s t a n c e s a n d , t h e r e f o r e , f o r i n c r e a s i n g l e v e l s o f d r u g a d d ic t io n . C o c a i n e a n d h e r o in c o n s u m p t i o n a n d a b u s e a r e p r i m a r i l y th e r e s u lt s o f a s p i l l o v e r f r o m t r a f f i c k i n g o p e r a t io n s . T h e d r u g p r o b l e m a p p e a r s t o b e m o r e a c u t e in th e m a j o r t r a n s it S t a t e s , n o t a b ly th e B a h a m a s , P u e r t o R i c o , J a m a ic a , B e l i z e , th e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c , T r i n i d a d a n d T o b a g o , a n d t o a l e s s e r e x te n t, G uyana. R e c e n t s t u d ie s in th e C a r i b b e a n h a v e f o u n d th a t th e h i g h e s t i n c i d e n c e o f c r a c k c o c a i n e a b u s e is a m o n g y o u n g p e o p l e . C r a c k a d d ic t s a s y o u n g a s 11 y e a r s o f a g e h a v e b e e n a d m it t e d to d e t o x i f i c a t i o n c e n t r e s in th e s u b r e g io n . E v e n y o u n g e r a d d i c t s - n i n e y e a r o l d s - w e r e f o u n d in th e B ah am as, w h ic h has a h ig h in c id e n c e o f tra ffic k in g . The v o lu m e o f d ru g o ffe n c e s in th e C a r i b b e a n h a s b e e n th e h i g h e s t in 1 9 9 3 , in J a m a ic a . ( S e e T a b l e X V I I ) . Violence and crime - S o c i a l a lie n a t i o n , a s e x p r e s s e d in c r i m e a n d v i o l e n c e , h a s e m e r g e d a s a c r it ic a l a r e a o f c o n c e r n in th e r e g io n . W h i l e th e r e li a b i l i t y a n d r e g i o n a l c o m p a r a b ilit y o f c r im e d a t a c o n t in u e s t o b e p r o b le m a t i c , t h e r e is n o d o u b t th a t th e l e v e l s o f v i o l e n c e a n d c r im e r o s e d r a m a t i c a ll y in a n u m b e r o f c o u n t r ie s in th e C a r i b b e a n . I n s e e k i n g t o e x p l a i n t h e s e r i s i n g l e v e l s o f c r im e , c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e p o i n t e d t o w i d e n i n g e c o n o m i c c la s s d is p a r it ie s , i n c r e a s i n g l e v e l s o f p o v e r t y , li m i t e d a v e n u e s f o r s o c ia l m o b i l i t y , th e im p a c t o f m i g r a t i o n o n th e f a m i l y , u r b a n i s a t io n , th e b r e a k u p o f t r a d it io n a l n o r m a t i v e s o c ia l c o n t r o ls , th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a d r u g c o u n t e r c u lt u r e a n d t e n s io n s a r i s i n g f r o m c h a n g i n g g e n d e r r e la t io n s . W i t h r e s p e c t to v i o l e n t c r im e , a s t u d y b y A l b u q u e r q u e a n d M c E l r o y 2 s h o w s th a t m u r d e r r a te s in th e 1990s have in c r e a s e d , a lb e it m o d e r a t e ly , fo r A n tig u a and D o m i n i c a , G u y a n a , J a m a ic a , St. K it t s a n d N e v i s , T r i n i d a d a n d T o b a g o V i r g i n I s la n d s . B arb u d a , B arb a d o s, a n d th e U n i t e d S t a te s I n B e l i z e th e m u r d e r r a te d e c l i n e d s li g h t ly d u r i n g th e 1 9 9 0 s f r o m 4 5 in 1 9 91 to 3 2 in 1 9 9 8 . C o n v e r s e l y , in J a m a ic a , th e n u m b e r o f m u r d e r s c l i m b e d f r o m 5 4 2 in 1 9 9 0 to 1 0 3 8 in 1 9 9 7 , a r i s e o f 91 p e r cen t. T h i s i n c r e a s e in m u r d e r r a te s h a s b e e n a t t r ib u t e d t o a n u m b e r o f f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g th e i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r o f g u n s in c ir c u la t io n , d r u g a d d i c t i o n a n d d r u g t r a d e a n d g a n g f e u d s . S t ill, d o m e s t ic / f a m ily a n d c o m m u n it y d is p u t e s a c c o u n t f o r a s i g n i f i c a n t n u m b e r o f h o m i c i d e s b o t h in T r i n i d a d a n d T o b a g o a n d G u y a n a . I n r e la t io n t o J a m a ic a , it h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d th a t th e m a j o r i t y o f m u r d e r s in th e 1 9 8 0 s r e s u lt e d f r o m d o m e s t ic d is p u t e s . B y th e 1 9 9 0 s , g a n g f e u d s a n d r o b b e r y a c c o u n t e d f o r 4 6 p e r c e n t o f a ll m u r d e r s in 1 9 9 5 . ( S e e T a b l e X V I I I ) . T h e r is e in o t h e r t y p e s o f v i o l e n t c r im e is e v e n s ta rk e r. T h e i n c i d e n c e o f r e p o r t e d c a s e s o f r a p e , l i k e a ll f o r m s o f v i o l e n c e a g a in s t w o m e n , a p p e a r s t o h a v e r i s e n d r a m a t i c a ll y w i t h i n th e C a rib b e a n r e g io n . W h e t h e r o r n o t t h is r e f le c t s o p p o s e d to in c re a s e d r e p o rt in g a n a c t u a l i n c r e a s e in th e n u m b e r o f r a p e s o r a c o m b in a tio n o f b o t h f a c t o r s is u n k n o w a b l e . s h o w s th a t th e i n c i d e n c e o f r a p e d o u b l e d b e t w e e n th e 1 9 8 0 s a n d 1 9 9 0 s f r o m p o p u l a t i o n t o 7 7 .4 in D o m i n i c a . A T a b le as X IX 3 9 .1 p e r 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 s te e p r is e in th e i n c i d e n c e o f r a p e is a l s o d i s c e r n i b l e f o r Albuquerque, Klaus de and McElroy, Jerome L, Longitudinal study of serious crime in the Caribbean, UWI Centre for Criminoliogy and Criminal Justice, UWI, St. Augustine, 1999. 17 J a m a ic a , St. K it t s a n d N e v i s a n d B a r b a d o s . A c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e X I X th e r a te o f r a p e s f o r th e c o u n t r ie s f o r w h i c h d a t a is a v a i l a b l e is h i g h e s t f o r D o m i n i c a , St. K it t s a n d N e v i s a n d A n t i g u a and B arb u d a . I n t h e ir c r im e s t u d y , A l b u q u e r q u e a n d M c E l r o y p o s i t th a t th e r e la t i v e l y l o w e r ra te f o r o t h e r c o u n t r i e s m a y b e a t t r ib u t e d t o u n d e r r e p o r t i n g ( a s in th e c a s e o f G u y a n a ) a n d in a d e q u a t e re c o rd k e e p in g . T a b l e s X X a n d X X I in d i c a t e th a t p r o p e r t y - r e l a t e d c r im e s h a v e c o n s is t e n t ly r i s e n s in c e th e 19 80 s. S u c h c r im e s in c r e a s e d b e t w e e n B arb a d o s, i n c lu d e r o b b e r y , l a r c e n y 1980 an d D o m in ic a , 1990. T h is w a s Guyana and St. K it s a n d b u r g la r y . T h e a v e r a g e ra te o f r o b b e r y h a s s i g n i f i c a n t in th e c a s e o f A n t i g u a a n d B a r b u d a , and N e v is . The in c re a s e w as m ost d r a m a t ic in B a r b a d o s , w h e r e th e ra te o f r o b b e r i e s w e n t u p f r o m 6 4 .6 p e r 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 t o 2 1 2 .2 p e r 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 o v e r th a t p e r i o d . I n St. K it t s a n d N e v i s it w a s d r a m a t ic a s w e l l . I n th a t c o u n t r y th e r a te in c r e a s e d f r o m 13 .3 to 5 8 .5 p e r 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 o v e r th e s a m e p e r i o d . S i m i l a r s t e a d y i n c r e a s e s in b u r g l a r y r a te s a r e to be n o te d . b u r g la ry E x c e p tio n s t o t h is a p p e a rs to h a v e are T r in id a d d e c re a se d . T h is and Tobago and J a m a ic a w h e r e d o e s n o t a c c o r d w i t h th e p u b l i c th e in c i d e n c e p e r c e p t io n of o f th e i n c i d e n c e o f s u c h c r im e s a n d th e d e c l i n e m a y b e r e la t e d t o u n d e r r e p o r t in g . One o f th e fa c t o r s , w h ic h over t im e w o u ld e f f i c i e n c y o f d e t e c t io n . I n th is r e g a r d , s in c e 1 9 9 5 , s o l v e d in T r i n i d a d a n d T o b a g o . a ffe c t r e p o rt in g ra t e s of c r im e , is th e le s s th a n o n e in s i x b u r g l a r i e s r e p o r t e d w e r e D e t e c t i o n ra t e s a r e s i m i la r ly l o w f o r r o b b e r i e s . I n th e c a s e o f r a p e , th e d e t e c t io n ra te is b e t t e r w i t h 63 p e r c e n t o f th e r e p o r t e d r a p e s f o r 1 9 9 9 b e i n g s o l v e d b y th e p o l ic e . ( S e e T a b l e s X I X , X X a n d X X I ) M e n c o m m i t m u c h o f th e r e p o r t e d c r im e . F o r J a m a ic a , 91 p e r c e n t o f t h o s e i n c a r c e r a t e d in 1 9 9 0 w e r e m a le , o f w h i c h n u m b e r o n l y 41 p e r c e n t w e r e fir s t t im e o f f e n d e r s . T h e ra te o f m a l e o f f e n d e r s r e m a i n e d r e la t i v e l y c o n s t a n t t h r o u g h o u t th e fi r s t h a l f o f th e 1 9 9 0 s . O n th e o t h e r h a n d , m o s t o f t h e w o m e n in c a r c e r a t e d in th e s a m e t im e p e r i o d w e r e fi r s t t im e o f f e n d e r s : 9 4 p e r c e n t in 1 9 9 0 a n d 8 8 p e r c e n t in 1 9 9 4 . T h e t y p e s o f c r im e s f o r w h i c h w o m e n a r e i m p r i s o n e d a l s o a p p e a r to b e d iffe re n t fr o m im p r i s o n e d in th e li m i t e d d a t a a v a i l a b l e f o r T r i n i d a d 1 9 9 7 in T r i n i d a d and Tobago, 42 and T o b ago . p e r cent w e r e O f th e im p r i s o n e d 117 w o m e n f o r v io la tio n s of n a r c o t i c l a w s . N a r c o t i c - r e l a t e d o f f e n c e s a c c o u n t e d f o r 31 p e r c e n t o f m e n im p r i s o n e d in 1 9 9 7 . In t e r e s t in g ly , 7 .7 per c e n t o f th e m e n who w ere im p r i s o n e d in 1997 w e r e in d e b t arrears, i n c l u d i n g c h i ld m a i n t e n a n c e a r re a r s . H o m i c i d e s , d r u g - r e la t e d o f f e n c e s a n d r a p e a r e a m o n g th e c r im e s r e p o r t e d m o s t o fte n . T a b l e X X I I illu s t r a t e s f o r s e le c t e d c o u n t r ie s . I n t e n t io n a l h o m i c i d e s m a y o r m a y b e n o t b e d r u g r e la t e d as w e ll. In th e sam e w ay, d r u g -r e la t e d h o m ic id e s m ay or m ay not h ave in t e n t io n a l e l e m e n t s a s w e l l . I n its in v e s t ig a t i o n , th e C o u r t a n d j u d i c i a r y m a y h a v e t h e ir w a y s o f d e a l i n g w i t h th a t a s p e c t o f r e le v a n t c a s e s o f c r im e . The 1998 U N IC E F s tu d y on th e state o f c h i ld r e n in th e E a s t e r n C a rib b e a n fo u n d a c o r r e l a t i o n o r c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n e a r ly e d u c a t io n fa i lu r e s , o n th e o n e h a n d , a n d l im it e d c o p i n g s k i lls a n d a n e a r ly e n t ry in t o l i v e s o f c r im e a n d d r u g a b u s e , o n th e o th e r. J u v e n i le c r i m e a n d d r u g a b u s e p r o f i l e s in d i c a t e th a t c h i ld r e n w h o h a v e b e e n f a i l e d b y th e e d u c a t io n s y s t e m h a v e li m i t e d c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n s k ills , l i f e a p p e a r to s k i lls o r e n t r e p r e n e u r ia l s k i ll s t o p r o v i d e f o r t h e ir 18 needs. S e v eral c o u n trie s in th e s u b r e g io n re p o rt in c r e a s in g n u m b e rs o f in c a r c e r a t e d young c r im in a l o f f e n d e r s . A p a r t f r o m d r u g a n d o t h e r c r i m e - r e l a t e d v i o l e n c e , v i o l e n c e a g a in s t w o m e n a n d d o m e s t ic v io le n c e Tobago have been on th e in c r e a s e , as w e ll, in several m e m b e r c o u n t r ie s . f o r e x a m p l e , th e n u m b e r o f m u r d e r s r e s u lt in g f r o m In T r in id a d and d o m e s t ic v i o l e n c e h a s i n c r e a s e d b e t w e e n 1996 an d 1998. (S e e T a b le X X I I I ). In re sp o n se i n v e s t i g a t i v e u n it s to and th is r e a lit y , in c re a s e d govern m en ts e x p e n d it u re have o n p o lic e e s t a b li s h e d and n a t io n a l n u m b e r o f c o u n t r ie s h a v e m o v e d t o r e s u m e c a p it a l p u n is h m e n t . I n s p e c ia l s e c u r it y . n a rc o tic In T r in id a d a n d and a d d it io n , a T o b a g o th e in s t it u t io n o f c o m m u n i t y p o l i c i n g h a s at le a s t p r o v i d e d c it iz e n s in s o m e c o m m u n it i e s w i t h s o m e s o rt o f p e a c e o f m i n d a s f a r a s th e d ir e c t a n d o ft e n e x p e r i e n c e o f o f f e n c e s is c o n c e r n e d . Concluding remarks I n c o n c l u s i o n , n o s w e e p i n g s ta t e m e n t c a n b e m a d e f o r th e C a r i b b e a n w i t h r e g a r d to th e r i s e o r f a l l o f p o v e r t y a n d s o c ia l in t e g r a t i o n a s t h e r e a r e m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g c o u n t r ie s w i t h d i f f e r e n t p a r a m e t e r s , c o n d it io n s a n d p o l i c i e s at n a t io n a l l e v e l . W h i l e t h is is tr u e , th e C a r i b b e a n m a y c o m p a r e f a v o u r a b l y w i t h s o m e c o u n t r ie s in th e w o r l d . H o w e v e r , th e r e g i o n m a y n e e d to a d v a n c e w i t h c a u t io n in t e r m s o f , f o r e x a m p l e , m a t te r s o f g o v e r n a n c e in o r d e r t o m a k e s u r e th a t a ll th e in t e r n a t io n a l a g r e e m e n t s s i g n e d a n d r a t if ie d r e la t i v e t o th e s o c ia l a r e n a a r e c o m p l i e d w it h , a n d th e i d e a l o f p u t t in g p e o p l e fi r s t is r e f le c t e d in th e p o l i c i e s , p r o g r a m m e s a n d p r o je c t s . T h e s a lie n t is s u e s o f c r i m e a n d v i o l e n c e , d r u g a b u s e a n d d r u g t r a f f i c k i n g n e e d to b e g i v e n s e r i o u s a tte n tio n . T h e n e e d to p r e p a r e f o r n e w c o m e r s o n th e j o b in c r e a s i n g n u m b ers o f th ose a lre a d y th e re , n o t fin d in g jo b s , m a r k e t a n d to a t te n d t o th e s h o u ld be h ig h o n th e lis t f o r d e v e l o p m e n t a l a c t io n . P e r h a p s in t e g r a t e d a n d h o l is t i c a p p r o a c h e s m a y b e th e m o s t f r u it f u l in th e l o n g te rm . P r o d u c t i v e a n d c o n s t r u c t iv e p a r t ic i p a t io n o f c i v i l s o c ie t y m a y w e l l b e in c r e a s i n g l y i n c lu d e d in th e p r o c e s s . F i n a l l y , th e m u c h m e n t io n e d a n d a l l u d e d t o n e e d t o f o r c e f u l l y p u r s u e s o c ia l d e v e l o p m e n t w h i l e s e e k i n g e c o n o m i c g r o w t h s h o u l d b e n o t o n l y c o n s i d e r e d b u t a c t u a l l y a p p l i e d in n a t io n a l a n d r e g io n a l d e v e lo p m e n t p o lic ie s a n d p ro g ra m m e s . 19 Annex Table I Poverty estimates of selected Caribbean countries Country Bahamas Barbados St. Kitts and Nevis Trinidad & Tobago Antigua & Barbuda St. Lucia Dominica St. Vincent and the Grenadines Belize Grenada Suriname Dominican Republic Jamaica Guyana Haiti Head Count Index Gini Coefficient 5.0 8.0 15.0 21.2 12.0 25.1 33.0 37.5 33.0 32.1 63.1 20.6 34.2 43.2 65.0 0.515 0.460 0.445 0.420 0.525 0.468 0.488 0.448 0.510 0.504 0.573 0.490 0.452 0.423 Source: ECLAC, Poverty Statistics, Santiago Seminar 7-9 May 1997. UN Santiago Chile. L/CR.1814. Pub. 17th April 1998. and KAIRI CONSULTANTS. Poverty Assessment Report, Grenada: Volume 1 of 2. (1998). Source of Gini Coefficients - Norman Girvan. “Societies at risk? The Caribbean and Global Change” Management of Social Transformations -Most, Discussion Paper Series - No. 17. Sources of figures: Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, St. Kitts/Nevis poverty estimates from IDB as reported in Greene, E. “Reducing Poverty in the Caribbean by Interventions in Health and Education”, PAHO, Table 1.1. ; St. Lucia (1995), Belize (1996), St. Vincent and the Grenadines (1996), Grenada (1998), - Poverty Assessment, Kairi Consultants; Dominican Republic, 1994, “Estabilizacion Apertura y Pobreza en Republicana Dominicana, 1986-1992”, Fundacion Economia y Desarollo, Inc.; Guyana (1993) HIES/LSMS as reported in World Bank 1994 “Guyana: Strategies for Reducing Poverty”’ Report No. 12861-GUA; Haiti (1987) Poverty Estimate reported in ECLAC, 1993, “Poverty Issues and Poverty Alleviation in the Caribbean,” Working Paper; Jamaica, Survey of Living Conditions (1992) estimates derived from: “Jamaica: A Strategy for Growth and Poverty Reduction, Country Economic Memorandum; St. Lucia (1995) Calculations from Survey of Living Conditions, as reported in CDB St. Lucia Poverty Assessment; UNDP (1999), prepared by Marcelo Neri and Jack Menke “Poverty in Suriname: Assessment, Monitoring and Capital Enhancing Policies”; Trinidad and Tobago (1992), Survey of Living Conditions as reported in World Bank, 1995, “Trinidad and Tobago: Poverty and Unemployment in an Oil Based Economy,” Report No. 14382-TR. 20 Table II Human Development Index for selected CDCC countries Selected years COUNTRY 1990 HDI 1992 HDI 1994 HDI Value Rank Value Rank Value Rank 0.785 60 0.840 55 0.892 29 Antigua and Barbuda 0.875 32 0.894 26 0.894 28 Bahamas 0.928 20 0.900 25 0.907 24 Barbados 0.689 82 0.883 29 0.806 63 Belize 0.711 75 0.769 72 0.723 86 Cuba 0.819 51 0.776 69 0.873 41 Dominica Dominican Republic 0.586 97 0.705 96 0.718 87 0.787 59 0.786 67 0.843 54 Grenada 0.541 105 0.622 105 0.649 104 Guyana 0.275 137 0.362 148 0.338 156 Haiti 0.736 69 0.721 88 0.736 83 Jamaica 0.697 79 0.873 37 0.853 49 St. Kitts andNevis 0.720 72 0.732 84 0.838 56 St. Lucia 0.836 57 St. Vincent and the 0.709 76 0.761 79 Grenadines 0.751 65 0.762 77 0.792 66 Suriname 0.877 31 0.872 39 0.880 40 Trinidad & Tobago Source: Human Development Report 1993, 1995, 1997, 1998 & 1999 1995 HDI 1997 HDI Value Rank 0.895 29 0.893 32 0.909 24 0.807 63 0.729 85 0.879 41 0.720 88 0.851 51 0.670 100 0.340 159 0.735 84 0.854 50 0.839 58 0.845 55 Value Rank 0.828 38 0.851 31 0.857 29 0.732 83 0.765 58 0.776 53 0.726 88 0.777 52 0.701 99 0.430 152 0.734 82 0.781 51 0.737 81 0.744 75 0.796 0.880 65 40 0.757 0.797 64 46 21 Table III Infant and child mortality per 1000 live births in CDCC countries C o u n try In fa n t M o r t a lit y C h i l d M o r t a lit y 94/95 1997 94/95 A n g u illa 26 -- 34 A n tig u a and B a rb u d a 19 17 23 8 -- 10 B aham as 19 18 21 21 B a rb a d o s 16 11 19 12 43 A ru b a B e liz e 36 35 46 B r i t i s h V i r g i n I s la n d s 20 30a 1997 21 23 7 Cuba D o m in ic a 14 D o m in ic a n R e p u b lic 17 8 18 44 20 53 G ren ad a 20 24 25 29 Guyana 46 59 62 82 92 H a it i J a m a ic a 17 M o n tserraat 12 N e t h e r la n d s A n t ille s 15 10 132 23 11 15 -- 18 25 P u erto R ic o St. K it t s a n d N e v i s 27 30 32 37 S a in t L u c i a 19 24 23 29 St. V i n c e n t a n d th e 18 18 23 21 S u rin a m e 18 24 22 30 T r in id a d a n d T o b a g o 14 15 18 17 G r e n a d in e s a1995 Source: UNECLAC, LC/CAR.G.580 22 Table IV Infant mortality rates for selected CDCC countries 1960)s - 1990 C o u n try 1970s 1980s 1990 32 1960s Baham as 30 24 B a rb a d o s 60 46 24 13 B e liz e 64 51 29 14 B r i t i s h V i r g i n I s la n d s 59 32 44 10 G ren ad a 62 33 24 28 57 36 G uyana M o n tserrat 114 43 40 19 St. K i t t s / N e v i s 102 48 53 20 54 31 21 S a in t L u c i a 107 49 24 20 St. V i n c e n t a n d th e 145 56 60 21 S u rin a m e 63 49 36 T r in id a d a n d T o b a g o 45 34 24 J a m a ic a G r e n a d in e s Source: Digest of Selected Demographic and Social Indicators, 1960-1994, ECLAC/CDCC 13 23 Table V Malnutrition in the Caribbean 1990 - 1998 Country Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Barbados Belize Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Grenada Guyana Haiti Jamaica St. Kitts and Nevis St. Lucia St. Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago % of under-fives (199 0-98) suffering from: *Wasting * Stunting *Underweight Moderate & Severe Severe 10x -5x 6 9 5x 6 -12 28 10 ---- 4x -1x 1 -0x 1 --8 1 ---- -7x -0x Source: UNICEF, The State of the World's Children 2000 Moderate & Severe Moderate & Severe -4x -5x 10x -4x -3 2x 1 -12 8 4 ---- *Underweight: < average; for age *Wasting: < average; for weight and height *Stunting: < average; height for age "X" indicates data that refers to years or periods other than those specified in the column heading, differ from the standard definition, or refer to only part of a country. 7x -7x --6x 11 -10 32 6 ---- 24 Table VI P ercentage of children < 1 year of age fully im m unized (three doses or m ore) w ith diph theria-pertusis-tetanus vaccine (DPT) and triv alen t oral polio vaccine (TO PV ), 1981, 1982, 1993, and 1994 Country Anguilla Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Barbados Belize Bermuda British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Dominica Grenada Guyana Jamaica Montserrat St. Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia St. Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago Turks and Caicos Is. 1981 DPT TOPV 78 81 79 47 55 53 59 55 50 51 57 60 95 75 67 67 93 93 43 41 45 40 39 37 76 76 67 71 64 65 32 33 27 25 52 46 29 25 aFigures are rounded to the nearest whole number Source: PAHO, Health Conditions in the Caribbean, 1997 Coverage (%)a 1982 1993 DPT TOPV DPT TOPV 89 86 100 100 79 90 100 100 69 67 91 91 62 63 86 88 50 52 88 89 53 53 65 63 83 94 98 99 90 91 98 98 100 73 99 99 56 61 89 91 53 73 93 92 34 72 91 93 94 86 100 100 92 93 100 100 79 81 97 97 67 99 100 100 61 58 74 73 54 59 81 78 67 80 100 100 1994 DPT TOPV 94 92 100 100 91 91 90 91 88 83 63 89 100 100 95 96 99 99 91 95 90 90 93 93 100 100 100 100 93 93 100 100 74 71 85 85 100 100 25 Table VII Increase and decrease of A IDS cases rep o rted in selected C arib bean countries - 1993-1997 Countries Increase Decrease Highest Incidence X Anguilla X Antigua and Barbuda X X Bahamas X X Barbados X Belize British Virgin Islands X X X Dominica X Grenada X Guyana X X Jamaica X Saint Kitts and Nevis X Saint Lucia X X St. Vincent and Grenadines X Suriname X Trinidad and Tobago Source: Quarterly AIDS Surveillance Reports submitted to CAREC's Epidemiology Division by CAREC member countries and UNDP Human Development Report 1999. Table VIII Comparison of numbers of "unnatural" deaths by source of report, selected countries D e a t h c e r t ific a t e C o u n try an d Y e a r M V Ia H o m ic id e P o lic e re p o rts M V I H o m ic id e B a h a m a s (1 9 8 5 ) 39 36 59 34 B a r b a d o s (1 9 9 0 ) 22 10 22 34 B e liz e (1 9 8 6 ) 18 0 (1 9 )b 35 77 G u y a n a (1 9 9 0 ) 50 122 190 105 J a m a ic a ( 1 9 8 8 ) 23 12 343 414 S a in t L u c i a ( 1 9 8 5 ) 23 10 25 8 213 108 220 106 T r in id a d a n d T o b a g o (1 9 8 5 ) aMotor vehicle injuries b19 deaths were classified as firearm accidents Source: Health Conditions in the Caribbean, PAHO 1997 26 Table IX Unemployment rate of selected Caribbean countries 1990 and 1997 U n e m p l o y m e n t ra te C o u n try 1990 1997 6 A n tig u a an d B a rb u d a n .a . Baham as 15 10 B arb a d o s 23 14.5 B e liz e 10 13 n .a . 23 G uyana 12 n .a . G ren ad a 14 17 J a m a ic a 15 16 S a in t L u c i a 17 20 St. V i n c e n t a n d th e 20 n .a . 14 10 1 9 .6 15 D o m in ic a G r e n a d in e s S u rin a m e T rin id a d a n d T o b a g o Source: ECLAC Document, WSSD 99/4, August 1999 Table X Changes in the levels and rates of unemployment in selected Caribbean countries between 1993 and 1998 C o u n try L e v e ls o f u n e m p lo y m e n t % in c re a s e o r d e c re a s e in th e ra te B aham as D ec rease -4 7 .3 B a rb a d o s D ec rease -4 6 .5 B e liz e In c r e a s e 4 5 .9 J a m a ic a In c r e a s e 7.1 N e th . A n t ille s (C u r a c a o ) In c r e a s e 2 0 .1 In c r e a s e 3 5 .8 S u rin a m e D ec rease -2 5 T rin id a d a n d T o b a g o D ec rease -2 7 .6 S a in t L u c i a Source: ECLAC Document WSSD 99/4, August 1999 27 Table XI Labour Force Participation in selected CDCC countries by sex 1992-1998 1992 1993 1994 1995 Country M F M F M F M F 79.9 69.9 82.3 69.5 82.1 70.2 78.5 69.5 Bahamas 74.1 59.4 74.1 59.7 74.2 61.5 74.5 62.7 Barbados 79.3 36.6 79.4 34.5 78.5 35.5 Belize 76.3 62.4 74.6 62.4 76.5 62.4 76.8 61.8 Jamaica 76.3 59.6 78.5 58.2 Saint Lucia 72 40 69 35 68 35 Suriname Trinidad and Tobago 76.1 44.1 75.5 43.7 74.6 44.3 75.5 44.9 Source: ILO Globalization and Employment in the Caribbean, August 1999 1996 M F 79.8 68.2 74.3 61.6 79.0 34.0 75.5 60.6 77.6 58.1 72 39 74.2 46.8 Table XII Squatting in Trinidad and Tobago, 1980-1990 Year Squatters Unit of Measurement 1980 10 6 S e t t le m e n t s 1985 20 % o f p o p u la t io n 1990 25 1990 2 5 ,0 0 0 % o f p o p u la t io n H o u s e h o ld s Table XIII Increased squatting in Trinidad and Tobago Year Squatters 1979 7 ,5 5 0 1990 2 5 ,0 0 0 1997 M F 79.4 70.5 73.6 62.1 79.7 38.6 74.6 59.0 78.4 59.7 68 37 74.8 45.9 1998 M F 82.4 73.0 74.0 62.0 78.6 39.6 74.0 57.8 77.0 59.5 75.3 47.0 28 Table XIV Households with access to safe water (%) in selected countries Country Households served by public system Public Piped Public piped standpipes into own into yard households Barbados 84.20 1.00 Dominica 30.00 49.5 22.7 46.00 28.00 Private piped and private attachment not piped 37.00 St. Kitts Nevis St. Lucia 74.00 10.20 Piped into other yard 3.30 1991 5.7 1.6 1991 18.00 16.8 1991 6.90 1991 71.60 1998 Source: UN-ECLAC National data. Table XV Potable water coverage in Haiti (1996) 1980 1990 1995 P o r t-a u -P rin c e 4 8 .0 5 3 .2 3 5 .0 S e c o n d a r y c it ie s 4 7 .0 5 8 .6 4 5 .0 8 .0 3 3 .5 3 9 .0 1 8 .0 3 9 .5 3 9 .0 C o u n try Source: CCST/ECLAC 1997 Year 7.90 St. Vincent and the Grenadines R u ra l areas Public well or tank 29 Table XVI Hurricane damage in the Caribbean affecting livelihoods in the 1990s Name Year Debby* 1994 Housing Agro X Banana plantation X (hundreds) 1995 Georges 1998 *Tropical storm X (70%) X 50% of sugar cane crop Occurred but not reported Power Supply X Casualties 4 Injured 24 1 3 X Luis Diseases X (85%) Occurred but not reported Occurred but not reported X - Including communicable diseases - Long-lasting psychological traumas X - X X 500 Many Major damage - silt-covered roadways Country affected St. Lucia - heavy floods - high water levels Martinique Dom. Republic Anguilla - infrastructure - homes - food availability - infrastructure - homes - food availability St. Kitts Dom. Republic 30 Table XVII Volume of drug offences in the 1990s in selected Caribbean countries COUNTRY Bahamas YEAR DRUG OFFENCES 1985 1,161 1986 1,259 1987 1,214 1988 948 1989 955 1990 1,172 1991 NA 1992 1,135 1993 1,023 1994 997 1985 259 Barbados 1986 274 1987 401 1988 NR 1989 510 1990 555 Dominican Republic 1985 1,121 1986 1,358 1987 1,329 1988 1,036 1989 NR 1990 NR 1983 4,250 Jamaica 1986 4,123 1987 4,395 1988 3,533 1989 4,086 1990 5,433 1991 6,711 1992 6,298 1993 6,915 1994 5,859 1995 6,074 1985 3,162 Trinidad and Tobago 1986 2,175 1987 2,401 1988 2,473 1989 2,361 1990 2,921 1991 2,706 1992 2,317 1993 2,509 Source: Dr Ivelaw Lloyd Griffith. Drugs and Security in the Caribbean: Sovereignty under Siege, Pennsylvania State University Press 1997 (295 p.) 31 Table XVIII Murder Rates1 for selected Caribbean States: 1980-1996 Year B'dos Dominica 7.2 7.2 5.9 7.9 6.3 3.1 7.8 3.1 4.7 6.3 4.7 7.8 13.7 6.0 5.4 7.5 7.4 2.1 7.3 5.2 7.2 11.2 9.1 Guyana Jamaica 14.2 13.6 15.0 16.7 16.8 17.4 9.9 11.8 11.8 13.1 12.0 26.0 13.8 15.2 14.0 40.6 22.4 18.5 18.7 21.2 19.0 19.2 18.8 17.6 18.5 22.6 23.0 25.7 26.4 27.9 31.4 36.8 21.4 16.8 27.7 St Kitts/ Nevis 9.1 2.3 4.6 9.0 4.7 4.7 14.4 7.1 9.5 16.3 9.3 5.9 10.2 T'dad/ T'go 4.4 6.8 7.3 6.8 6.3 8.4 6.6 8.4 7.0 8.2 6.9 7.8 USVI 23.8 24.4 24.6 19.3 15.8 19.8 17.4 16.0 24.2 15.6 8.9 10.6 9.6 25.1 21.9 25.4 29.6 19.1 7.0 20.1 00 00 5.2 2.6 5.4 9.5 5.5 2.7 6.9 7.0 4.2 5.6 6.9 5.6 6.4 6.0 7.2 5.2 5.9 6.2 3.9 9.3 7.7 6.9 11.5 7.3 7.2 6.5 6.8 5.3 5.7 6.5 Grenada 24.2 00 00 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Avg. Rates 1980s Avg. Rates 1990s Antigua / Barbuda Sources: All population data, except USVI, are from the Caribbean Development Bank. USVI data from the USVI Census Data Centre. The Royal Antigua Police Force; The Royal Barbados Police Force; Dominica National Crime Data Survey; The Royal Grenada Police Force; Annual Reports of the Guyana Police Force and the Guyana Statistical Bulletin; Economic and Social Survey of Jamaica; The Royal St Christopher and Nevis Police Force; Annual Statistical Digest; Trinidad and Tobago; Virgin Islands Police Department and F.B.I. Notes: 1 Per 100,000 population 32 1 Table XIX Rape rates1 for selected Caribbean States: 1980-1996 Year 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Avg. Rates 1980s Avg. Rates 1990s Antigua / Barbuda 2 B'dos Dominica 39.3 19.9 40.3 36.5 49.1 45.3 43.0 60.1 76.9 66.8 105.8 58.4 22.1 24.8 22.0 16.3 24.4 16.7 25.2 14.7 23.9 24.6 27.2 31.7 34.2 37.6 23.9 28.0 28.7 21.5 72.3 30.2 77.4 51.9 56.6 47.1 76.9 67.4 72.1 56.3 82.4 76.0 70.2 76.8 39.1 Grenada 10.7 21.2 13.7 11.5 16.8 22.5 21.3 21.2 18.3 Guyana 13.3 14.6 12.4 11.3 8.0 13.2 13.5 18.1 9.7 13.9 10.9 20.8 14.6 22.7 Jamaica3 St Kitts/ Nevis2 12.8 35.0 34.5 40.8 36.5 39.1 37.1 39.0 42.8 47.5 45.8 41.9 44.9 45.3 52.5 43.3 64.5 71.4 39.8 17.3 52.0 38.6 59.5 69.1 47.3 65.1 62.9 55.0 73.8 57.1 67.8 114.5 T'dad/ T'go4 USVI 70.4 68.2 76.8 62.7 72.6 74.0 49.3 66.0 56.6 80.2 96.3 73.2 63.8 54.7 55.9 66.3 71.8 73.6 Sources: See Table 1 Notes: 1 Per 100,000 population 2 Includes indecent assault 3 Includes carnal abuse 4 Not reported as a separate category - included in "Other crimes against the person." 33 Table XX Robbery rates for selected Caribbean States: 1980-1996 Year 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Avg. Rates 1980s Avg. Rates 1990s Antigua / Barbuda B'dos Dominica 2.6 5.4 9.5 20.5 15.1 16.6 11.2 36.4 26.4 53.6 42.0 69.4 212.2 31.9 37.3 29.9 44.0 56.5 42.3 29.8 40.7 60.7 76.0 97.7 111.4 Sources: Notes: 11.6 Guyana Jamaica 186.3 190.1 198.7 27.7 93.2 78.2 56.9 65.0 64.0 61.7 56.5 71.8 70.8 130.1 253.0 362.6 275.1 183.6 154.3 127.0 64.6 Grenada 18.1 13.8 26.4 46.1 62.8 49.1 45.7 48.5 348.7 249.1 548.8 551.2 245.3 216.0 210.8 165.2 176.3 217.2 215.9 202.1 208.6 188.4 189.5 223.1 230.3 201.4 219.1 220.8 177.9 178.6 199.0 41.8 449.7 207.3 322.1 214.5 256.7 St Kitts/ Nevis 13.6 9.2 9.2 20.3 14.0 9.3 12.0 47.6 76.2 84.1 121.5 T'dad/ T'go2 USVI 504.1 559.5 437.4 348.1 288.4 287.0 354.3 488.2 433.2 304.9 378.8 357.7 305.3 626.7 619.6 669.5 521.7 439.4 13.3 411.1 58.5 575.4 1 Per 100,000 population 2 Not reported as a separate category - included in "Other crimes against the person." 34 Table XXI Burglary rates for selected Caribbean States: 1980-1996 Year 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Avg. Rates 1980s Avg. Rates 1990s Antigua / Barbuda B'dos Dominica 731.7 793.4 773.2 1040.6 878.6 857.1 963.9 1019.6 1072.7 1211.4 1570.1 1299.7 557.4 628.3 596.6 592.4 816.0 721.5 744.5 715.2 871.9 930.0 1096.3 968.7 1204.7 1540.4 1239.7 1017.4 930.1 717.4 1936.8 1142.5 1218.5 1103.8 1051.9 1321.8 1508.6 1512.5 1609.7 1734.0 2003.1 2018.6 2068.7 2186.7 Sources: Notes: 862.6 Grenada 431.2 629.5 677.2 776.7 655.5 881.4 1136.0 1227.5 854.8 1 Per 100,000 population Guyana Jamaica 296.3 294.3 314.1 403.3 452.7 365.7 392.6 429.6 517.6 605.4 429.3 782.4 483.4 628.3 407.2 378.6 385.2 367.8 378.3 369.9 377.7 383.5 335.2 309.2 309.4 330.6 333.0 253.0 270.0 271.7 231.6 190.2 359.5 580.9 268.6 St Kitts/ Nevis 831.8 659.0 705.1 867.1 832.6 1205.1 1033.5 1009.5 1297.6 1483.6 2219.6 T'dad/ T'go 506.0 576.4 616.4 637.8 636.4 771.4 740.6 718.5 771.9 682.3 617.1 591.0 639.3 675.8 610.9 517.7 USVI 3596.7 3126.8 3112.7 2730.8 2637.2 779.1 665.8 3741.2 1374.8 608.6 3040.8 3710.1 4699.9 4338.9 3907.4 3857.7 3309.6 3112.3 3098.0 3637.1 35 Table XXII Crime statistics for selected CDCC countries 1994 In ten tio n al D r u g C rim e s R e c o r d e d rapes H o m ic id e s P e r 100,000 (th o u sa n d s ) p e r 100,000 p e o p le p e o p le B aham as 85.5 2 8 2 .6 0.2 B a rb a d o s 11.8 2 1 7 .7 0.1 G uyana 18.0 2 5 2 .4 0.1 J am aic a 27.1 231.1 1.1 2 4 4 .0 0.2 C o u n try St. V in c e n t a n d the G re n a d in e s 9.8 T r in id a d & T o b a g o 6.8 S o u rce: E C L A C d o c u m e n t L C / C A R / G .5 8 0 Table XXIII Murders in Trinidad and Tobago resulting from domestic violence No. o f P e r cent P e r cent o f P e r cent o f v ic tim s F e m a le F e m a le s k ille d P erp etrato rs m ale 1996 16 75 50 87.5 1997 12 83.3 50 83.3 1998 23 60.8 39.1 82.6 Year w h o w e r e sp o u ses Source: ECLAC document LC/CAR/G.580