Maintitle

Copyright

Alicia Bárcena

Executive Secretary

Mario Cimoli

Deputy Executive Secretary a.i.

Daniel Titelman

Chief, Economic Development Division

Ricardo Pérez

Chief, Publications and Web Services Division

The Preliminary Overview of the Economies of Latin America and the Caribbean is an annual publication prepared by the Economic Development Division of the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC). This 2017 edition was prepared under the supervision of Daniel Titelman, Chief of the Division, while Jürgen Weller, Senior Economic Affairs Officer, was responsible for its overall coordination.

In the preparation of this edition, the Economic Development Division was assisted by the Statistics Division, the ECLAC subregional headquarters in Mexico City and Port of Spain, and the Commission’s country offices in Bogota, Brasilia, Buenos Aires, Montevideo and Washington, D.C.

The regional report was prepared with inputs provided by the following exerts: Cecilia Vera, Claudia de Camino and José Antonio Sánchez (global economic trends and external sector), Claudio Aravena (economic activity), Ramón Pineda and Alejandra Acevedo (prices and monetary and exchange-rate policies), Jürgen Weller (employment and wages), and Michael Hanni, Juan Pablo Jiménez, Ivonne González and Ignacio Ruelas (fiscal policy). Pablo Carvallo, Cecilia Vera and Claudio Aravena were responsible for the economic projections, with the assistance of the ECLAC subregional headquarters and national offices. Sonia Albornoz, Cristóbal Budnevich, Rodrigo Contreras, Luis Rodrigo Díaz and Luis Méndez collaborated as research assistants and in the preparation of statistical data and graphical presentations.

The country notes are based on studies conducted by the following experts: Olga Lucía Acosta, Dillon Alleyne, Anahí Amar, Martín Brum, Martín Cherkasky, Marcos Chiliatto, Cameron Daneshvar, Claudia de Camino, Randolph Gilbert, Sonia Gontero, Enrique González, Michael Hendrickson, Álvaro Lalanne, Jesús López, Ricardo Mayer, Sheldon McLean, Rodolfo Minzer, Yaddi Miranda, Carlos Mussi, Ramón Padilla, Machel Pantin, Esteban Pérez, Juan Carlos Ramírez, Juan Carlos Rivas, Indira Romero, José Antonio Sánchez, Jesús Santamaría, Nyasha Skerrette and Francisco Villarreal. Michael Hanni and Albert Klein reviewed the Caribbean country notes. Georgina Cipoletta collaborated in the review of the country notes for the Latin American countries.

Explanatory notes

- Three dots (…) indicate that data are missing, are not available or are not separately reported.

- A dash (-) indicates that the amount is nil or negligible.

- A full stop (.) is used to indicate decimals.

- The word “dollars” refers to United States dollars unless otherwise specified.

- A slash (/) between years (e.g., 2013/2014) indicates a 12-month period falling between the two years.

- Individual figures and percentages in tables may not always add up to the corresponding total due to rounding.

United Nations publication

ISBN: 978-92-1-121977-7 (print)

ISBN: 978-92-1-058615-3 (pdf)

ISBN: 978-92-1-358076-9 (ePub)

Distr.: General

Sales No.: E.18.II.G.2

LC/PUB.2017/28-P

Copyright © United Nations, 2018

All rights reserved

Printed at United Nations, Santiago

S.17-01282

This publication should be cited as: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Preliminary Overview of the Economies of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2017 (LC/PUB.2017/28-P), Santiago, 2018.

Applications for authorization to reproduce this work in whole or in part should be sent to the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Publications and Web Services Division, publicaciones@cepal.org. Member States and their governmental institutions may reproduce this work without prior authorization, but are requested to mention the source and to inform ECLAC of such reproduction.

Contents

Maintitle

Copyright

Executive summary

Chapter I

Global economic trends

Chapter II

Global liquidity

Chapter III

The external sector

Chapter IV

Economic activity

Chapter V

Domestic prices

Chapter VI

Employment and wages

Chapter VII

Macroeconomic policies

Chapter VIII

Outlook and challenges for 2018

Statistical annex

Executive summary

A. International context

B. External sector

C. Economic activity

D. Employment and wages

E. Macroeconomic policies

1. Fiscal policy

2. Prices and exchange-rate and monetary policies

F. Outlook and challenges for 2018

A. International context

In 2017, the external context was more favourable in both real and financial terms for Latin America and the Caribbean.

In real terms, the global economy will grow at a rate of 2.9%, up from 2.4% in 2016. This improvement in growth took place across the board and benefited developed and emerging economies alike, both of which saw faster rates of growth over the current year. The estimated 2017 growth rate for the former group is 2.1% (compared to 1.6% in 2016), while the estimate for the latter is 4.5% (over 4.0% in 2016). This stronger growth is expected to carry over into 2018.

Forecasts for 2018 place global economic growth at 3.0%, with a more buoyant performance expected for emerging economies. Developed economies will continue to grow at around 2%, while growth in emerging economies will accelerate to 4.8%. By country, the United States is expected to maintain its economic upturn in 2018, with an estimated growth rate of 2.4%, while the eurozone will post rates similar to those of 2017. China’s growth looks likely to drop by three tenths of a percentage point to 6.5%, while India stands to grow by 7.2% in 2018, up from 6.7% in 2017.

One of the weakest aspects of the external context is the sluggish growth in global trade volumes: while higher growth was posted in 2017 than in 2016, it remains below historical averages. For 2017 a growth rate of around 3.6% is estimated, more than double the figure of 1.4% recorded in 2016, and that level is expected to continue into 2018. Among the factors driving this faster growth are rising global aggregate demand and, in particular, higher levels of global investment, which is import-intensive.

Commodity prices —a key factor for the economies of Latin America and the Caribbean— are performing positively. After a 4% decline in 2016, they are expected to rise by almost 13% in 2017 on average. Energy products —whose prices fell most sharply in 2016— will see the largest increases, along with metals and minerals. By contrast, prices for agricultural product prices will edge up slightly. In 2018, barring geopolitical conflicts, commodity prices are expected to remain, on average, similar to those of this year. If that is the case, prices in 2018 would still be more favourable than they were in 2015 and 2016 (7% and 12% higher, respectively).

In the financial sphere, Latin America and the Caribbean continues to benefit from low international interest rates, reduced financial volatility and declining risk perceptions.

In line with the more benign international financial conditions and changes in investors’ appetite for risk, capital inflows to bond and equity markets in emerging markets —including those of Latin America and the Caribbean— have recovered over the course of the year, although they remain far below the levels seen between 2010 and 2013. This was also reflected in the prices of financial assets, particularly in stock market prices, which generally followed an upward trend over the year.

B. External sector

While higher economic growth in Latin America and the Caribbean in 2017 has led to a rise in imports of about 8% over their 2016 level, that increase has been more than offset by exports, which rose by almost 11% after declining for four consecutive years. The performance of exports may be explained by higher commodity prices and the recovery not only of economic activity but also of trade at both the global and intraregional levels.

The recovery in prices for the region’s main exports in 2017 will boost the terms of trade by an average of almost 3% over 2016 levels. This marks the first increase after five years of decline. Hydrocarbon-exporting countries will benefit the most this year, with a 12% increase in their terms of trade. Exporters of mining products will also gain from higher prices, which are expected to boost their terms of trade by 6%. Meanwhile, trends in agricultural prices have been less favourable and point to a 1% decline in exporters’ terms of trade in 2017, owing to higher prices for energy products and other intermediate goods.

Across the region, all countries will see their exports grow, led in particular by Brazil, which will post an increase of 17%. In the first nine months of the year, exports of iron ore and oil derivatives soared, up by 62% and 100%, respectively, owing to strong price increases. Soybean exports also climbed sharply (20%) thanks to improved harvests, as did exports of manufactured products, including automobiles and heavy goods vehicles. Those countries whose exports comprise mainly minerals and hydrocarbons will experience sharp increases of 15% and 12%, respectively, in their 2017 exports.

Improved trade balances in 2017, combined with inflows of remittances from migrants, will result in an improvement of the region’s current account deficit, which is expected to amount to 1.6% of GDP in 2017, lower than the 1.9% calculated for 2016.

In 2017, overall net financial flows to the region are expected to be around 4% lower than in 2016, but they will still be enough to cover the reduced current account deficit and, additionally, to accumulate international reserves of about US$ 28 billion, which will mean an increase of 3.2% in reserves between 2016 and 2017.

Within the financial account, data to June point to a degree of stability in the region’s net foreign direct investment (FDI) flows. This stems from a considerable increase in FDI flows in Brazil (up 23% year-on-year at the end of the third quarter), combined with declines in all the other countries. So far in 2017, non-FDI flows (basically, portfolio and other types of investment flows) have posted declines in the region overall.

C. Economic activity

After two years of contraction of regional GDP, economic growth turned positive in 2017 (1.3%), as a result of increases in both domestic demand and export volumes. Domestic demand rose by an average of 1.5% over the first three quarters of 2017. That was on account of increases of 2.3% in investment and 1.7% in private consumption and, to a lesser extent, of a 0.1% uptick in public consumption. Export growth also picked up.

The economies of South America will grow by 0.8% this year, after two years of economic downturn. For the group comprising the economies of Central America, Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Haiti, a growth rate of 3.3% is expected this year, a level similar to the 2016 result. Forecasts for the English- and Dutch-speaking Caribbean indicate average growth rates of 0.1% in 2017, a figure that reflects the damage wrought by Hurricanes Irma and María in some of the subregion’s countries.

D. Employment and wages

Despite the slow economic recovery in 2017, the average urban unemployment rate in Latin America and the Caribbean will rise from 8.9% in 2016 to an estimated 9.4%. As a result, the cumulative increase in unemployment since 2014 will be 2.5 percentage points, or 7 million people (from 15.8 million to 22.8 million) in the region’s urban areas. This spike in urban unemployment is the result of a decline in the employment rate and an increase in the number of people seeking work (participation rate).

Amid the generally sluggish performance of employment, wage employment creation was particularly weak and declined as a percentage of total employment. Given that wage employment is characterized by higher levels of quality than other job categories, average employment quality deteriorated again in the region.

Real wages in formal employment evolved positively, with a median growth rate of 2%. This increase was the result of falling inflation atop a moderate increase in nominal wages. At the same time, earnings in many countries received a boost from minimum wage policies aimed at improving the situation of lower-income workers.

E. Macroeconomic policies

1. Fiscal policy

Fiscal consolidation continued to mark the tenor of fiscal policy in the region in 2017. Accordingly the primary deficit for the region on average should narrow from -1.0% of GDP in 2016 to -0.8% in 2017, mainly owing to a slowdown in primary public expenditure. However, an increase in public debt servicing costs offset the improvement in the primary balance, and the overall balance therefore held steady at -3.1% of GDP. The adjustment of the primary deficit had the effect of reducing the contribution of general government consumption to GDP growth to near zero in 2017.

Fiscal situations vary within the region. On the one hand, at -0.2% of GDP in 2017 for the second year in a row, the average primary balance for Central America, the Dominican Republic, Haiti and Mexico was nearly at equilibrium. Higher interest payments —which rose from an average of 2.0% of GDP in 2016 to 2.2% in 2017— pushed up the total deficit in those countries from -2.1% of GDP in 2016 to -2.4% in 2017.

In South America, conversely, the average primary deficit narrowed for the first time in five years, falling from -1.9% of GDP in 2016 to -1.5% of GDP in 2017; despite the drop, however, the level remains high. The impact that the reduction in the primary deficit had on the overall deficit (which fell from -4.2% of GDP in 2016 to -3.9% in 2017) was undone to some extent by the increase in the service on the public debt, which rose from 2.3% of GDP in 2016 to 2.4% of GDP in 2017.

In the Caribbean, the average primary surplus held at 1.2% of GDP in 2017 for the second year running, but the fiscal deficit rose slightly —from -2.2% of GDP to -2.3% of GDP— owing to higher interest payments. The need to generate large primary surpluses in order to cope with these countries’ hefty public debts continues to constrain the role of fiscal policy in driving the subregion’s growth.

In the third quarter of 2017, Latin America’s gross public debt amounted to 38.4% of GDP, which was similar to the level recorded at the close of 2016. Although the simple average of the public debt hardly changed at all, the number of countries that witnessed an increase in their level of debt rose; this was offset by a decline in debt levels in 7 of the 19 countries of the region, however. Brazil continues to be the country with the largest public debt, at 73.9% of GDP, followed by Argentina, with a debt equivalent to 53.7% of GDP, and Honduras, with a debt amounting to 47.8% of GDP. At the other end of the spectrum, Paraguay has the smallest public debt in the region (20.8% of GDP), followed by Peru (21.2% of GDP) and Guatemala (23.5% of GDP).

In the Caribbean, as of the third quarter of 2017, central government debt amounted to 70.9% of GDP, down 1.5 percentage points from its 2016 level. The overall trend is towards a downturn in the rate of public indebtedness, with only 4 out of the 13 reporting countries seeing an upswing in debt levels. Barbados and Jamaica still have debt levels of over 100% of GDP (102.7% and 109.5% of GDP for 2017, respectively), but they both reduced their indebtedness substantially, as did Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica and Saint Kitts and Nevis.

2. Prices and exchange-rate and monetary policies

During the first 10 months of 2017, average inflation in Latin America and the Caribbean continued the downward trend that started in mid-2016, falling from 8.2% at October 2016 to 5.3% at October 2017. Current inflation levels in the region are the lowest they have been since the end of 2013. Also noteworthy is the rapid drop in inflation since mid-2016: between May 2016, when it peaked at 8.9%, and October 2017, regional inflation fell by 390 basis points, at a little over 20 basis points per month for a total decrease of 40%. In spite of that downward trend, however, a slight increase has been recorded since July 2017, ending 13 consecutive months of declining inflation in the region.

A sharper divergence in inflationary patterns between the different subregions of Latin America and the Caribbean also emerged during 2017. Between October 2016 and October 2017, the inflation rate in South America fell from 10.6% to 4.9%, while in the Caribbean it fell from 7.2% to 3.7%; in the Central America and Mexico subregion, however, inflation rose 2.6 percentage points, from 3.4% in 2016 to 6.0% in 2017. While different factors contributed to these subregional disparities, there is little doubt that exchange rate dynamics and anti-inflationary monetary policies are the most significant.

Inflation continues to define the margins available to monetary authorities for stimulating aggregate domestic demand. In South America and the non-Spanish-speaking Caribbean, falling inflation rates are providing space for more expansionary monetary policies, whereas in Central America and Mexico, the management of monetary policy is geared towards controlling increases in general prices.

The economies of South America that use policy rates as their main monetary policy instruments reported downward trends during 2017, with cuts in Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Paraguay and Peru. The dynamics are more diverse among the economies of Central America and Mexico: in Costa Rica and Mexico, the monetary authorities decided to increase their benchmark interest rates, while Guatemala and Honduras held theirs steady.

In the region’s economies that use aggregates as the main policy instrument, the monetary base slowed its pace of growth. Latin America’s monetary base has expanded by 8.5% on average since the fourth quarter of 2016, a rate 7 percentage points lower than the average for the period between the first quarter of 2015 and the third quarter of 2016. The situation is similar in the economies of the non-Spanish-speaking Caribbean, whose monetary base has grown 4.0 percentage points more slowly, on average, in the first two quarters of 2017 than in the same period of 2016.

In 2017, there has been a slight increase in the rate of growth of real private sector credit in the economies of Latin America. The contraction of domestic credit continued in the economies of the non-Spanish-speaking Caribbean, and data obtained for the second quarter of 2017 point to an annualized drop of 3.2%.

Most of the region’s countries reported more moderate fluctuations in their exchange rates in 2017 than in 2016. Likewise, over the course of the year, the real effective extraregional exchange rate appreciated by 0.3% for the economies of Latin America and the Caribbean as a whole, contrasting with the depreciation recorded in 2016. This dynamic in the real effective extraregional exchange rate was on account of the appreciation posted in the economies of South America; while lower than the 2016 result, it offset the real-term depreciation recorded in the economies of Central America, Mexico and the non-Spanish-speaking Caribbean.

F. Outlook and challenges for 2018

The context for the region’s performance in 2018 will continue to be favourable in both real and monetary areas. The global economy is expected to continue to grow at rates close to those recorded in 2017, and emerging economies are poised to out-perform developed ones. On the monetary front, liquidity will continue to expand, and international interest rates will remain low. This opens up a promising opportunity for Latin American and Caribbean countries to expand their economic policy space in a way that will sustain the expansionary phase of the business cycle.

Nevertheless, the international situation poses certain challenges for the consolidation of global growth over the medium term.

Efforts to normalize monetary policy, notably the reversal of the quantitative easing policies that is already under way or has been announced by the Federal Reserve of the United States, the European Central Bank and the Bank of Japan, are creating uncertainties in the financial markets.

These financial risks are coupled with others that are associated with developed countries’ domestic policies. Examples include the move being made to reduce financial regulation and specifically to roll back the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and the Consumer Protection Act in the United States, which could make the financial system more vulnerable in the medium term. In addition, the tax reform bill now moving through the legislature in the United States could ease the corporate tax burden and bolster capital flows to that country.

Finally, there are a number of geopolitical risks, including those arising from the growing protectionism being observed in some countries, from rising nationalism —evidenced by the growing support for anti-globalization parties in some European countries— and last year’s vote in favour of Brexit in the United Kingdom. Meanwhile, the rhetoric used by the United States in the latest rounds of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) talks suggests that the dissolution of that treaty is a less remote possibility than it used to be, especially in light of that country’s withdrawal from the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP).

Together with the boost the region will receive from rising external demand, domestic demand will play an important role in accelerating growth, although with differences among components. Thanks to the upswing in gross fixed capital formation, investment will make a greater contribution to the economy. Private consumption continues to drive domestic demand. Fiscal consolidation efforts are expected to continue in 2018, making it unlikely that fiscal policy will contribute significantly to GDP growth.

Estimates put the GDP growth rate for Latin America and the Caribbean at 2.2% for 2018, which is substantially higher than the rate for 2017 (1.3%). More robust economic growth in Brazil (2.0%) will be one of the factors behind this upturn. In addition, economic activity is expected to strengthen in a number of countries that have been growing at moderate rates up to now, including Chile (2.8%), Colombia (2.6%) and Peru (3.5%). Panama will be the Latin American country with the highest growth rate (5.5%), followed by the Dominican Republic (5.1%) and Nicaragua (5.0%). With the exception of Cuba (1.0%), Ecuador (1.3%) and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (-5.5%), all the other economies in Latin America will expand by between 2% and 4%.

At the subregional level, South American countries are expected to post stronger growth in 2018 (at 2.0%, up from 0.9% in 2017). The economies of Central America, Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Haiti are projected to attain a growth rate of 3.6%, above their 2017 rate of 3.3%. The average growth rate for the English- and Dutch-speaking Caribbean is projected at 1.5% for 2018, fostered, among others, by expenditure on reconstruction in the aftermath of Hurricane Irma and Hurricane Maria in some countries of the subregion.

Chapter I

Global economic trends

Global economic growth rose in 2017 (2.9%) and is also expected to increase in 2018 (3.0%), albeit in a context of low dynamism in the medium term

As the global economy has strengthened, so have international trade volumes, although their growth rates remain below the levels seen before the global financial crisis

Commodity prices are expected to be an average of 13% higher in 2017 than in 2016; no major changes are expected in 2018, with forecasts indicating average levels similar to those of this year

During 2017, despite some short-lived spikes, financial market volatility has remained low, capital flows into emerging markets have continued and prices of stock market assets have generally been on the increase

The elimination of some of the monetary stimulus in developed countries could have an impact on the dynamics of exchange rates and relative interest rates

Global economic growth rose in 2017 (2.9%) and is also expected to increase in 2018 (3.0%), albeit in a context of low dynamism in the medium term

After expanding by only 2.4% in 2016, the world economy showed greater dynamism in 2017 and is set to achieve an average growth rate of 2.9% at the close of the year. This trend towards greater dynamism is expected to continue in 2018, with growth of 3.0% (see figure I.1).

Figure I.1

Selected regions and countries: gross domestic product growth, 2016-2018a

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of United Nations, “World Economic Situation and Prospects, 2018”, forthcoming; International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Economic Outlook. Seeking Sustainable Growth: Short-Term Recovery, Long-Term Challenges, Washington, D.C., October 2017; Capital Economics, Global Economic Outlook, October 2017; Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), OECD Economic Outlook, vol. 2017, No. 2, November 2017, and data from Consensus Economics.

Note: GDP at market prices is used for world growth rates.

a Figures for 2017 and 2018 are projections.

The emerging economies have been accelerating in 2017 and should post a growth rate of 4.5% at the end of the year. For 2018, a growth of 4.8% is expected.

Particularly notable within this group is China, with an expected growth rate of 6.8% this year, which is more than both the 2016 result and the mid-year forecast of 6.5%. The expected slowdown in the Chinese economy did not materialize this year, but it is expected to happen in 2018 —a growth rate of 6.5% is forecast for next year— in line with the Government’s more restrictive economic policies.

Brazil and the Russian Federation, two other large emerging economies, are expected to post positive rates of growth this year (0.9% and 1.9% respectively), after drops in 2016 (-3.5% and -0.2%, respectively).

In India, however, everything indicates that the economy will grow less this year than the forecasts of a few months ago predicted. The impact of the banknote demonetization initiative and the launch of the goods and services tax (GST) resulted in weak levels of economic activity during the first half of the year: year-on-year GDP grew by 5.7% in the second quarter, the lowest result in three years. Consequently, the growth rate for the year as a whole will probably be below 7%. More dynamic growth (7.2%) is expected in 2018, given that over the second half of 2017 the effects of the Government policies referred to above were already beginning to dissipate.

The developed economies are expected to report 2.1% growth in 2017, five tenths of a percentage point above their 2016 result.

In the United States, economic activity showed signs of strength during the first three quarters of 2017. While the hurricanes that struck during the second half of the year caused some disruption, their impact on overall activity was not significant and the economy is moving towards a growth rate of 2.2% this year, which would be seven tenths of a percentage point higher than its 2016 result. Additional growth, rising to 2.4%, is expected for 2018.

Japan is another developed economy that will post a significant acceleration in 2017: it is expected to close the year with a growth rate of 1.6%, six tenths of a percentage point higher than its result in 2016. This would be Japan’s best result since 2013 and would occur after more than four years of economic stimulus policies under the Government of Prime Minister Shinzo Abe. The dynamism of the country’s economic activity has rebounded in recent quarters: GDP growth in the third quarter of 2017 (1.4% compared to the previous quarter, in annualized terms) was the seventh consecutive positive result, something that had not been seen since the start of the century. However, the expansion of the Japanese economy is forecast to weaken in 2018, with a growth rate of 1.2%. First, fiscal policy is expected to be more restrictive than in 2017 and, second, a part of the increased external demand and private investment related to the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games is likely to be offset by higher imports.

As in Japan and the United States, the eurozone is expected to report accelerated expansion in 2017 and end the year with a growth rate of 2.2%, up from 1.8% in 2016. Despite higher levels of political uncertainty fuelled by certain events in the single-currency area’s countries over the course of the year, consumer- and business-confidence indicators suggest that to date, those uncertainties have not filtered through to the economic arena. Thus, the year-on-year growth rate in the third quarter of 2017 was 2.5%, the best result since the beginning of 2011. Private consumption has shown strength while investment is on the upswing, in a context of better expectations and favourable financing conditions.

Finally, mention must be made of the United Kingdom, where lower growth is expected this year than in 2016 (1.5%, compared to 1.8% last year) and forecasts indicate an even lower result for 2018 (1.4%). Growth over the first three quarters of 2017 reflected the impact of sterling’s depreciation on inflation and, consequently, on real incomes and private consumption. The Government itself, upon presenting its proposed budget in November, revised its growth forecasts for 2017 and 2018 downward, on account of weak productivity growth and a worse investment performance than expected.[1] In the less immediate future, the evolution of the United Kingdom economy will be determined by the impact of the negotiations for the country’s departure from the European Union in the Brexit process.

As the global economy has strengthened, so have international trade volumes, although their growth rates remain below the levels seen before the global financial crisis

Global trade, after growing by only 1.4% in 2016, began a rebound in November of that year in line with the quickening pace of global economic activity.

In its September 2017 report, the World Trade Organization (WTO) forecast a trade volume growth of 3.6% for the year.[2] That figure stands at the higher end of the range of between 1.8% and 3.6% forecast in the previous report. The WTO had stated that the uncertainty created by the Brexit process and the possible tightening of trade policies pointed to “a significant risk that trade expansion in 2017 will fall into the lower end of the range”. [3] However, those risks did not materialize this year and, in the last month for which data are available (August 2017), trade volumes reported year-on-year growth of 5%. In addition, according to the WTO, export orders have increased, which would point to+ continued trade growth over the second half of the year.

For 2018, WTO forecasts a trade growth rate of 3.2%, only four tenths of a percentage point lower than in 2017 (see figure I.2), on the assumption that the developed countries will adopt less expansive monetary policies and that “fiscal expansion and easy credit in China are likely to be reined in to prevent the economy from overheating”. [4] However, the WTO forecast for 2018 covers a broad range (from 1.4% to 4.4%), reflecting the prevailing uncertainty whereby, in the Organization’s words, recovery could be undermined by “downside risks, including trade policy measures, monetary tightening, geopolitical tensions and costly natural disasters”. [5] Those risks could bring the trade growth rate down to levels closer to the lower end of the range.

Figure I.2

World: year-on-year variation in trade volume, three-month rolling averages, 2003-2017

(Seasonally adjusted percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of figures provided by Netherlands Bureau for Economic Policy Analysis (CPB), and World Trade Organization (WTO), “WTO upgrades forecast for 2017 as trade rebounds strongly” [online] https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres17_e/pr800_e.htm.

Commodity prices are expected to be an average of 13% higher in 2017 than in 2016; no major changes are expected in 2018, with forecasts indicating average levels similar to those of this year

After a 4% decline in 2016, commodity prices are expected to rise by an average of almost 13% in 2017. Energy products (i.e. the goods with the sharpest price drops in 2016) will see the largest increases, along with minerals and metals. In contrast, agricultural product prices will rise only slightly in 2017 (see table I.1).

Table I.1

Annual variation in international commodity prices, 2016-2018a

(Percentages)

2016

2017

2018

Agricultural and livestock products

4.7

1.1

-0.7

Foods, tropical beverages and oilseeds

5.8

0.71

-0.5

Foods

9.3

1.3

-1.2

Tropical beverages

0.6

0.6

-0.3

Oils and oilseeds

2.6

-0.20

0.3

Forestry and agricultural raw materials

0.3

2.8

-1.2

Minerals and metals

-0.9

19.9

-2.4

Energy

-16.3

19.5

1.3

Crude oil

-15.7

19.0

2.3

Petroleum products

-24.1

19.0

0.0

Coal

14.5

30.0

-9.5

Natural gas

-4.6

20.0

2.3

Total commodities

-4.2

12.5

-0.6

Total commodities (excluding energy)

2.1

9.5

-1.5

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of figures provided by Bloomberg, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and The Economist Intelligence Unit.

a Figures for 2017 and 2018 are projections.

Barring unforeseen geopolitical or other contingencies, the commodity price forecast agencies predict no major changes in 2018. Instead, commodity prices are expected to remain, on average, similar to their 2017 values. If that is the case, prices would ultimately be more favourable in 2018 than they were in 2015 and 2016 (which they would exceed by 7% and 12%, respectively).

In terms of individual products, in 2018 the oil market expects prices to rise slightly (by 2.3%) over their 2017 average, as future production cuts by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)[6] and recovering demand could be partly offset by increased output from non-OPEC countries that have not agreed to reduce their production, particularly the United States.

In the case of industrial metals, which include copper and iron, a slight price correction is expected (-2.4%) with respect to the 2017 average, which might have been influenced by excessive optimism about Chinese demand, which is expected to slow next year.

Finally, for agricultural products as a whole, favourable prospects for harvests would mean a slight downward pressure (-0.7%) on prices in 2018. Buoyant soybean stocks and the good harvests expected will keep prices down at their 2017 levels; for maize, in contrast, a fall in global stocks looks likely to lead to slightly higher prices. At the same time, coffee prices are likely to remain depressed, on account of forecasts indicating increased output from the main producers (Brazil and Viet Nam). Sugar production is expected to remain buoyant, which would lead to downward pressures on its price.

During 2017, despite some short-lived spikes, financial market volatility has remained low, capital flows into emerging markets have continued and prices of stock market assets have generally been on the increase

Over the year, volatility in financial markets has been on the decline, interrupted only by specific, short-duration episodes. At the end of October 2017, the indices normally used to measure this volatility —particularly, the VIX index in the United States and its counterparts for the European market (the V2X index) and for emerging markets (the VXEEM index)— stood at levels not seen since before the global financial and economic crisis (see figure I.3).

Figure I.3

Implied market volatility indices, May 2006 to October 2017

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of Bloomberg.

Note: The VIX Index is prepared by the Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE) from S&P 500 call and put option prices, and measures expected volatility over the next 30 days. Following the same logic, the CBOE also produces the VXEEM index, which measures volatility in emerging markets, while Deutsche Börse and Goldman Sachs produce the V2X index, which does the same for the eurozone.

In line with the kinder international financial conditions and changes in investors’ appetites for risk, capital inflows into emerging country bond and equity markets —including those of Latin America and the Caribbean— have recovered over the course of the year, although they still remain far below the levels reported between 2010 and 2013 (see figure I.4). This was also reflected in the prices of financial assets, particularly in stock market prices, which generally followed an upward trend over the year (see figure I.5).

Figure I.4

12-month cumulative portfolio capital flows to emerging markets, January 2008-July 2017a

(Billions of dollars)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of Bloomberg and Central Reserve Bank of Peru, “Reporte de inflación: panorama actual y proyecciones macroeconómicas 2017–2019” [online] http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/docs/Publicaciones/Reporte-Inflacion/2017/setiembre/reporte-de-inflacion-setiembre-2017-presentacion.pdf.

a Monthly indicator of portfolio capital flows prepared by the Institute of International Finance (IIF). Includes flows into bond and stock markets.

Figure I.5

Stock market indices (MSCI),a 30-day rolling averages, February 2016-November 2017

(Index: 1 January 2016=100)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of Bloomberg.

a Market capitalization weighted index, Morgan Stanley Capital International.

The elimination of some of the monetary stimulus in developed countries could have an impact on the dynamics of exchange rates and relative interest rates

After a series of three increases starting in December 2016, the United States Federal Reserve kept its policy interest rate unchanged in September 2017, with which it remains in a range between 1.0% and 1.25%. The most important outcome of that meeting, however, was the widely expected announcement that the gradual unwinding of its quantitative easing programme would start in October. Together with the perceptions that existed regarding a likely increase in interest rates in December, this fuelled an appreciation of the dollar, which had been declining over the course of the year (see figure I.6).

Figure I.6

Nominal dollar exchange rate against major world currencies, January 2013-September 2017

(DXY index, 1 January 2013=100)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of Bloomberg.

Note: The Bloomberg DXY index (dollar spot index) tracks the performance of a basket of ten leading currencies against the dollar. The currencies that are included in the basket and their weights within it are determined annually depending on their share of international trade and their liquidity on foreign exchange markets. The figure shows the opposite of the index published by Bloomberg, whereby an increase in the index indicates a depreciation of the dollar and a drop in the index shows an appreciation of the dollar against the other currencies.

The Bank of England increased its policy rate for the first time in a decade in early November 2017, while the European Central Bank announced, at the end of October, that it would begin to reduce the monthly security purchases of its quantitative easing programme in January 2018. According to the announcements, the key aspects of the bank’s future monetary policy are to be the following: (i) the European Central Bank will begin (in January 2018) to reduce the amount of its net security purchases (tentatively planned to reach zero in September 2018, but possibly later than that if deemed necessary), (ii) upon completion of the net security purchases, the bank will continue to reinvest the capital of maturing securities (for an extended period), and (iii) the bank will begin to reduce the size of its balance sheet. Given the time frame indicated, it is possible that this final phase will not start before 2020.[7] At the same time, the monetary authority left interest rates unchanged and said there would be no increases until the net security purchases were completed: in other words, not before September 2018 at the earliest.

Even taking these monetary policy decisions into account, however, the perception still exists that levels of global liquidity will remain high at least in the medium term and that efforts to reduce the size of the global monetary base will be unable to commence for at least two years. This is partly because although the Federal Reserve has begun to reduce its balance sheet, the elimination of monetary stimulus by the United States will be a slow process. In addition, no reduction is forecast in Europe until 2020, while in Japan, although the monetary authority (the Bank of Japan) has reduced the rate of its security purchases, it is not expected to begin reducing the size of its balance sheet for a couple of years.

Thus, prevailing global financial conditions in 2018 should not significantly affect the capital flows available to emerging markets, including those of Latin America. It is true that the process towards normalizing interest rates that is already underway in the United States will increase the costs of financing for countries and lead to changes in the structures of portfolios but, given the gradual rate increases expected, flows of external financing into the emerging economies should not be too severely affected.

[1] See Office for Budget Responsibility, Economic and Fiscal Outlook, November 2017 [online] http://cdn.budgetresponsibility.org.uk/Nov2017EFOwebversion.pdf.

[2] See World Trade Organization (WTO), “WTO upgrades forecast for 2017 as trade rebounds strongly” [online] https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres17_e/pr800_e.htm.

[3] See WTO, “Trade recovery expected in 2017 and 2018, amid policy uncertainty” [online] https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres17_e/pr791_e.htm.

[4] See WTO, “WTO upgrades forecast for 2017 as trade rebounds strongly” [online] https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres17_e/pr800_e.htm.

[5] Ibid.

[6] At its meeting of 30 November 2017, OPEC decided to maintain the cuts in output in 2018.

[7] See Capital Economics, “Global Economics Update”, 27 October 2017 [online] https://www.capitaleconomics.com/publications/global-economics/global-economics-update/global-qe-to-slow-only-gradually/.

Chapter II

Global liquidity

Global liquidity showed signs of faster growth in 2017

Global banking has partly recovered from the effects of the global financial crisis

The international bond market is still an important source of financing for emerging economies, including those of Latin America and the Caribbean

The policy of quantitative easing reversal may be a source of risk, albeit limited, for emerging economies, including in Latin America and the Caribbean

Global liquidity showed signs of faster growth in 2017

Global liquidity, including banking and debt markets, grew faster in 2017 than the previous year (5.4% in the second quarter of 2017, compared with 1% in the same quarter of 2016) (see figure II.1). This was driven essentially by the international bond markets, although bank lending was also up.

Figure II.1

Rate of change in global liquidity, March 2014-June 2017

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of figures from the Bank for International Settlements (BIS), 2017.

Note: Liquidity comprises total lending by the banking systems of the United States, Europe and Japan and outstanding debt issues on international markets there.

Global liquidity was channelled mostly to developed economies, with less going to developing economies: 77% and 23% of the total for the second quarter of 2017, respectively. In that same quarter, the breakdown of global lending by subregion shows that the emerging economies of Asia-Pacific received 9.3% of the total, followed by the developing economies of Europe (6.0%) and Latin America and the Caribbean (4.5%).

Analysis by type of instrument shows that the bond market has led the liquidity upturn in the United States, with bank lending and bonds up by 1.3% and 9.1%, respectively, in the second quarter of 2017. Conversely, Europe and Japan have seen bank credit climb strongly, with rates of 11.3% and 8.3% year-on-year in the second quarter (compared with 1.7% and 5.9% for the second quarter of 2016).

Global banking has partly recovered from the effects of the global financial crisis

Global banking is showing signs of partial recovery from the effects of the global financial crisis, with recapitalization and cost profile improvements. However, the return on equity (ROE) in the banking system is in the range of 8%-10%, half the figures seen before the global financial crisis and only just enough to cover the cost of capital.

As a result, revenue growth has tended to fall. The evidence available shows that revenue growth in global banking slipped from 16.8% in the period 2002-2007 to 6% in 2010-2014, and to 3.9% in 2015-2017. This has eroded banks’ capacity to extend credit and the loans-to-deposits ratio has in fact fallen on average from 124.6 % in 2002-2007 to 105.7% in 2012-2016.

Falling revenue growth has affected developed countries in particular, and developing countries to a lesser extent. For the period 2015–2017, North America, Western Europe and Japan recorded revenue growth rates of 0.9%, 0.3% and 4.4%, respectively. Conversely, in the developing economies, including those of Latin America and the Caribbean, banking revenue growth has been quite high: 8.1% in emerging Asia and 7.5% in Latin America in 2015-2017.

In addition, the banking industry has higher rates of return in Latin America and the Caribbean than in other developing and developed regions. The evidence shows that for 2016, the return on assets was 8.6% for banking globally, 22.4% for Latin America and the Caribbean, 14.2% for China and 12.3% for Eastern Europe, the Middle East and Africa (see figure II.2)

Figure II.2

Return on equity in the financial sector, 2016

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of McKinsey Global Institute (MGI), 2017.

The international bond market is still an important source of financing for emerging economies, including those of Latin America and the Caribbean

International bond market activity has been favourable for emerging economies, partly thanks to the low international interest rates that have offered them a beneficial spread since 2013. Moreover, foreign-exchange volatility has eased for the emerging economies since the global financial crisis (see figure II.3).

Bond issues by emerging economies (which represent approximately 10% of the total) increased by 12% in 2017, almost twice as much as in 2016. By region, Latin America and the Caribbean accounted for the largest share of emerging economy bond issues (34.3%), followed by Asia-Pacific (29.1%) (see figure II.4).

Figure II.3

Foreign-exchange volatility in emerging economies and interest rate spread between emerging and developed economies, January 2000-April 2017

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of Bloomberg and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

Figure II.4

Share in total bond issues by developing economies, second quarter 2017

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of figures from the Bank for International Settlements (BIS), 2017.

In the first 10 months of 2017, bond issuance by Latin America and the Caribbean stood at US$ 127 billion, up 9% from 2016. By country, Argentina, Brazil and Mexico accounted for 75% of the issuance on international bond markets. By sector, government was the largest issuer, with 46% in the second quarter of 2017, followed by the non-financial corporate sector, with 39%. Meanwhile, the financial sector issued 15% of the total for that period.

In the first quarter of 2017, non-financial corporate sector debt represented 88% and 104% of GDP, respectively, for developed and developing economies, slightly less than in the year-earlier period (90% and 105%, respectively). Among the developed economies, the countries and territories with the highest level of non-financial corporate sector borrowing include Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Ireland and Belgium (243%, 226% and 157% of their respective GDP for the first quarter of 2017).

China stands out among the developing economies with a figure of 165% of GDP and, if household borrowing is added to the estimate, China’s total private sector debt comes to 258% of GDP for the first quarter of 2017.

Within Latin America and the Caribbean, the country with the highest level of corporate borrowing is Chile (100.5% of GDP), followed by Brazil (42.4%) and Colombia (40.5%), in the first quarter 2017 figures. Chile and Colombia also showed the largest credit-to-GDP gaps, albeit smaller than in 2016 in both cases:[1] 10.5% in first-quarter 2017 compared with 15.9% in first-quarter 2016 for Chile and 8.4% compared with 12.2% for Colombia in the same periods.

The policy of quantitative easing reversal may be a source of risk, albeit limited, for emerging economies, including in Latin America and the Caribbean

One of the main questions of 2018 and the coming years, in terms of global economic performance, is the impact that may be expected from the reversal of quantitative easing announced by the Federal Reserve, the European Central Bank and the Bank of Japan.

The Federal Reserve started to reduce its balance sheet in October 2017 and the European Central Bank will begin to reduce its bond purchases in 2018. The Bank of Japan, is also expected to cut back its bond purchases next year.

On the one hand, the resulting rise in international interest rates will likely aid banking yields, which could boost lending and the monetary multiplier, both of which fell significantly in the wake of quantitative easing.[2] These expectations are reflected in the yield curve on United States treasury bonds as from September 2017, which began to rise after holding steady earlier in the year (see figure II.5).

Moreover, the rising interest rates brought by quantitative easing will produce a negative wealth effect by reducing bond values, which could act as a drag on international bond market growth. At the same time, higher interest rates will erode the relative returns on the assets of emerging economies,[3] which could trigger outflows from emerging economies to developed countries.

Figure II.5

Yield curve for United States treasury bonds (5-year bonds with respect to 30 year-bonds), December 2016-November 2017

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, Federal Reserve Economic Data (FRED) [online] https://fred.stlouisfed.org/ and Lynch & Allen, November, 2017.

For the developing economies, the consequences of this scenario will depend in part on the composition of the financial inflows to the region and the weight of the components that are more sensitive to international interest rate variations.

The evidence for Latin America and the Caribbean[4] shows a change in the composition of the balance-of-payments financial account, specifically in portfolio flows, with accrued annual bond flows exceeding those of bank loans. This could have a significant impact given that bonds are more sensitive to shifts in external conditions. A recent study by the Bank for International Settlements (2017)[5] found that a 25-basis-point rise in the federal funds rate translates into a fall of 57 basis points in the growth of cross-border lending, but a drop of 125 basis points in the growth of international bond issuance.

[1] The credit-to-GDP gap refers to the percentage difference between the debt-to-GDP ratio and its long-term trend estimated using a Hodrick-Prescott filter.

[2] To put things in perspective, between January 2006 and August 2008 the M1 and M2 multipliers averaged 1.63 and 8.48, respectively (with a standard deviation of 0.01 and 0.29). After the collapse of Lehman Brothers in September 2008, the two multipliers fell from 1.33 and 7.20, respectively, in October to 1.09 and 5.75 in November. After quantitative easing began in December, the multiplier for the narrow money supply (M1) fell below 1, suggesting that it became a monetary divisor. The multiplier of the broad money supply (M2) averaged 3.6 after quantitative easing began, with a top and bottom range of 5.2 and 2.8.

[3] This effect is known as the portfolio rebalancing effect and it is a key channel for quantitative easing transmission. Portfolio rebalance refers to a decrease in an asset’s risk premium (the spread between its expected yield and the risk-free interest rate) caused by changes in its net supply. In the case of treasury bonds, the risk premium is accounted for mainly by the maturity, i.e. by the extra return that investors require to offset the interest rate risk inherent in holding bonds for a longer period as opposed to short-term holdings. Accordingly, long-term bond prices are more sensitive to interest rate variations than

short-term bond prices. A number of studies have found evidence of a negative relationship between large-scale asset purchases and the maturity premium of treasury bonds, and a positive relationship between large-scale asset purchases and the yield on other assets such as bonds in general, corporate bonds and, to some extent, prices and returns on raw materials. In fact, the evidence available indicates that large-scale asset purchases did boost the bond market.

[4] E. Pérez Caldentey, N. Favreau Negront and L. Mendez, “Deuda del sector corporativo no-financiero en América Latina y sus posibles implicaciones macroeconómicas”, document presented at the workshop “¿Cómo dinamizar el crecimiento económico de América Latina y el Caribe?”, Santiago, 3-4 October 2017.

[5] S. Avdjiev and others, “The shifting drivers of global liquidity”, BIS Working Papers, vol. 644, Bank for International Settlements (BIS), 2017.

Chapter III

The external sector

The balance-of-payments current account deficit is forecast to narrow in 2017 owing mainly to Brazil

The terms of trade are expected to improve for the region as a whole in 2017 and to remain stable next year

The trade balance will improve in 2017 thanks to stronger exports

Deficits in the services and income accounts are projected to grow in 2017 while the transfer balance is expected to reflect a bigger surplus thanks to stronger migrant remittance inflows

Net financial flows to the region will be slightly lower in 2017 than in 2016, but will be more than enough to finance the smaller current account deficit

External bonds issued by Latin American and Caribbean countries grew by almost 9% in the first 10 months of 2017 compared with the year-earlier period and posted record volumes since the data series began

In 2017, sovereign risk levels in the region maintained the downward trend that began in February 2016

The balance-of-payments current account deficit is forecast to narrow in 2017 owing mainly to Brazil

The regional current account deficit is expected to amount to 1.6% of GDP in 2017, lower than the 1.9% seen in 2016 (see figure III.1), owing mainly to the decline in Brazil’s deficit, by almost one percentage point of GDP, thanks to strong export growth. Excluding Brazil, the regional current account deficit will remain steady at about 2.3% of GDP.

Figure III.1

Latin America (19 countries): balance-of-payments current account by component, 2007-2017a

(Percentages of GDP)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a The figures for 2017 are projections.

Most countries posted an improvement in their trade balances and transfers, owing especially to migrants’ remittances, which were partly offset by larger interest payments abroad and the repatriation of profits by transnational firms.

The terms of trade are expected to improve for the region as a whole in 2017 and to remain stable next year

The recovery in prices for the region’s main exports in 2017 will boost the terms of trade by 3% compared with 2016 (see figure III.2). This increase is the first after five years of declines. Hydrocarbon-exporting countries will benefit the most this year, with a 12% increase in their terms of trade. Exporters of mining products have also gained from higher prices, which are expected to boost their terms of trade by 6%. Meanwhile, trends in agricultural goods prices have been less favourable, and point to a 1% decline in exporters’ terms of trade in 2017, owing to higher prices for energy products and other intermediate goods. The situation will be similar for Central American countries (-1%) and the Caribbean excluding Trinidad and Tobago (-0.1%), which are generally net importers of energy and food products, and which are expected to post a decline in their terms of trade this year.

Figure III.2

Latin America and the Caribbean (selected countries and country groupings): variation in the terms of trade, 2015-2017a

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a The figures for 2017 are projections.

The trade balance will improve in 2017 thanks to stronger exports

Higher commodity prices, along with an improvement in global and intraregional trade activity and volumes, are reflected in an increase Latin American exports, which are expected to grow for the first time after four years of contractions (see box III.1).[1] Year-on-year growth of 11% is expected at the end of 2017, including an 8% increase in prices and a 3% rise in volumes (see figure III.3). All of the region’s countries posted growth in exports, particularly Brazil, which is forecast to record a jump of 17% in 2017. In the first nine months of the year, exports of iron ore and oil derivatives soared, up by 62% and 100%, respectively, owing to strong price increases. Soybean exports also climbed sharply (20%) thanks to improved harvests, as did exports of manufactured products, including automobiles and heavy goods vehicles. The countries which mainly export minerals and hydrocarbons saw big increases of 15% and 12%, respectively, in their exports. This trend stemmed primarily from higher prices for these products, which offset weaker export volumes in some cases. Assuming that the prices and export volumes of agricultural products will remain fairly steady this year, the value of exports for the countries concerned is expected to rise by 3%, on average. The improvement in Mexico’s manufacturing exports to the United States and Latin America, along with higher crude oil prices, is expected to boost that country’s exports by 9%. The other Central American countries are projected to record an increase of 6% in exports owing mainly to greater volumes, particularly in Honduras and Nicaragua, where exports are expected to grow by 6% and 9%, respectively, thanks to stronger coffee, sugar and fruit production.

Figure III.3

Latin America (selected countries and groupings): projected variation in goods exports, by volume and price, 2017

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC).

Box III.1

Growth of trading partners and Latin American export volumes

The export volumes of Latin American countries are strongly linked to the economic activity of the region’s trading partners —both intraregional and extraregional— as this activity is a proxy for the level of demand for exports from each country in the region.

The weighted average GDP growth of the region’s trading partners, compared with the region’s export volumes, points to a correlation coefficient of 0.9 for 2000-2017.

Latin America: indicator of trading partners’ GDP growth and variation in export volumesa

(Year-on-year percentage variation)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC).

a The growth indicator was calculated on the basis of trading partners’ growth rates weighted according to each partner’s share of the goods exported by the region’s countries.

Bearing this in mind, and assuming that commodity prices remain stable, regional exports are likely to grow in 2018, owing primarily to export volumes. If current projections are confirmed, GDP growth for the region’s trading partners is expected to be stronger in 2018 than in 2017 for virtually all countries, both in South and Central America.

Latin America: indicator of trading partners’ growth, 2013-2018

(Percentages)

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

South America

3.3

2.8

2.8

2.5

3.1

3.2

Argentina

3.2

2.4

1.9

2.0

2.9

3.1

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

2.9

1.1

1.0

0.8

2.3

2.6

Brazil

3.4

2.9

3.3

2.7

3.3

3.3

Chile

3.7

3.4

3.4

3.1

3.6

3.5

Colombia

2.8

3.0

2.6

1.6

2.3

2.5

Ecuador

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.2

2.7

2.9

Peru

3.1

3.2

3.1

2.9

3.3

3.3

Paraguay

2.7

1.5

0.2

-0.2

2.1

2.3

Uruguay

3.0

1.8

1.4

1.1

2.3

2.4

Central America and Mexico

2.0

2.6

2.8

1.7

2.3

2.5

Costa Rica

2.4

3.1

3.1

2.2

2.6

2.7

Dominican Republic

2.3

2.5

2.7

1.9

2.4

2.7

El Salvador

2.5

3.2

3.4

2.5

2.9

3.0

Guatemala

2.3

2.5

2.9

2.3

2.7

2.7

Honduras

2.4

2.6

2.3

2.0

2.4

2.4

Mexico

1.9

2.6

2.8

1.6

2.3

2.4

Nicaragua

1.8

2.0

2.3

2.3

2.3

2.3

Panama

2.5

2.0

2.0

0.9

1.3

2.0

Latin America

2.9

2.8

2.8

2.2

2.9

3.0

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of information from the United Nations Commodity Trade Database (COMTRADE), for trade partner weightings, and International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Economic Outlook, October 2017 [online database], https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/01/weodata/index.aspx, for GDP growth projections.

In line with the improvement in the region’s economies and higher commodity prices, goods imports are expected to reflect year-on-year growth of 8% at the end of 2017, with an increase of 4% in prices and in volumes (see figure III.4). All countries in the region are forecast to post increases in imports except the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. The most notable examples are Argentina, Ecuador and Paraguay, with growth of around 20%. In the first two cases, imports improved against the backdrop of a return to economic growth after declines in 2016. In Ecuador, in addition to the improved economic performance, imports were also boosted considerably by the elimination of “safeguards” at the end of the first half of 2017.[2] The region’s two largest economies, Brazil and Mexico, are projected to post growth of 8% in imports in 2017. Meanwhile, the rise in commodity prices, particularly of energy products, along with stronger volumes, explains the expected 7% jump in imports into Central America.

Latin America’s trade balance improved in both 2016 and 2017: in the first case, owing to a contraction in imports coinciding with weaker regional GDP growth and in the second case, to stronger exports. As a result, the region moved from a deficit representing 1% of GDP in 2015 to surpluses equivalent to 0.1% and of 0.6% of GDP in 2016 in 2017, respectively.

Figure III.4

Latin America (selected countries and groupings): projected variation in goods imports, by volume and price, 2017

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC).

Deficits in the services and income accounts are projected to grow in 2017 while the transfer balance is expected to reflect a bigger surplus thanks to stronger migrant remittance inflows

In 2017, the services account deficit is expected to remain the same as in 2016, at around 0.9% of GDP. However, in nominal terms it is forecast to expand slightly, from US$ 47.4 billion to US$ 50.3 billion. The increase in goods imports will lead to higher volumes and freight costs, thus raising transport payments.[3] Meanwhile, the economic upturns have boosted spending on travel and other services. Services exports will post growth of 7% in 2017, owing to stronger tourism income as well as to transport and other services in general.[4]

With respect to the income account, the improvement in commodity prices this year implies an expansion of the deficit, from 2.5% of GDP to 2.7%, given the higher level of repatriated earnings from foreign investment in natural resources.[5] Since the beginning of the 2000s, the income account deficit has been closely linked to commodity price trends, as that period saw considerable foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows, with a large share directed to the natural resources sector (see figure III.5).[6]

By contrast, the current transfer balance, which is a historically positive account, is expected to maintain its surplus of around 1.4% of GDP, although, measured in dollars, it is set to grow by 7% in 2017. In the first nine months of the year, migrant remittance flows, which are the main component of transfers, climbed by 9% on average in the region, thanks to stronger economic growth in the originating countries (see figure III.6). Notable examples are the Dominican Republic and Guatemala, where remittance inflows grew by 15%, as well as Colombia, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Paraguay, where they climbed by more than 10%.

Figure III.5

Latin America: income balance and energy and non-energy commodity price indices, 1980-2017a

(Indices: base=2010)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures and World Bank Commodity Price Data (Pink Sheet).

a The figures for 2017 are projections.

Figure III.6

Latin America and the Caribbean (selected countries): year-on-year variation in income from migrant remittances, 2015-2017a b

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Figures for 2017 refer to the period from January to October for El Salvador and Guatemala, and from January to September for Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, Nicaragua and Paraguay. The figures for Costa Rica, Ecuador, Honduras, Peru and the Plurinational State of Bolivia refer to the period from January to June. Figures for Jamaica refer to the period from January to April.

b The United States is the main country of origin of remittances for all the countries considered, except for Paraguay and the Plurinational State of Bolivia, for which Spain is the main country of origin of remittances.

Net financial flows to the region will be slightly lower in 2017 than in 2016, but will be more than enough to finance the smaller current account deficit

In 2017, overall net financial flows to the region will be 4% lower than in 2016, but will still be enough to cover the current account deficit and even to accumulate international reserves. The stock of these reserves is expected to increase by about 4.2% between 2016 and 2017.

Within the financial account, data to June point to stability in the region’s net FDI flows. However, this stability stems from a considerable increase in FDI flows in Brazil (up 23% year-on-year at the end of the third quarter), combined with a decline in FDI for the rest of the region (see figure III.7).

Non-FDI flows (basically, portfolio and other types of investment flows) have fallen so far this year in the region as a whole. Nonetheless, this trend also reflects two different realities for Brazil (increasing net outflows) and for the rest of the region (growing net inflows).

Figure III.7

Latin America (selected countries): net direct investment flows and other financial flows, first quarter of 2008-second quarter of 2017

(Millions of dollars)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

External bonds issued by Latin American and Caribbean countries grew by almost 9% in the first 10 months of 2017 compared with the year-earlier period and posted record volumes since the data series began

Bond issues in international markets by the countries of the region continued to grow, and were up by almost 9% in the first 10 months of 2017 (compared with the year-earlier period). This is the result of a stronger appetite for emerging market assets and more favourable economic conditions in the region. Moreover, for the period from January to October 2017, total bond issues amounted to roughly US$ 127 billion, a record since the data series began (see figure III.8). The banking and private corporate sectors posted the strongest increases in bond issues over the period, while those of the other sectors fell year-on-year.[7]

Figure III.8

Latin America and the Caribbean: bonds issued in international markets in the first 10 months of each year, 2006-2017

(Millions of dollars)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of figures from the Latin Finance Bonds Database.

The largest increases between January and October in 2017 were posted by Chile and Peru, where, despite weaker economic performances, sovereign risk levels remained low and demand for these countries’ bonds on international markets was solid (see figure III.9). By contrast, bonds issued by Argentina and Mexico recorded the strongest declines compared with 2016, although in both cases this performance stemmed from a particularly demanding comparison base in 2016. For Argentina, 2016 was the year the country returned to the bond markets after reaching an agreement with holdout creditors, which resulted in record bond issues during the first half of the year. In Mexico, bond issues by PEMEX were exceptionally high in 2016, as the State-owned oil company sought to pre-finance its needs for 2017 ahead of presidential elections in the United States.[8]

In 2017, sovereign risk levels in the region maintained

the downward trend that began in February 2016

Sovereign risk levels in almost all the countries of the region have been declining since early 2016, in line with calmer global financial markets and greater financing volumes in the region’s bond markets.

Between 1 January and 31 October 2017, the Emerging Market Bond Index Global (EMBIG), which reflects regional sovereign risk, fell by 70 basis points to 403 basis points (see figure III.10). The notable exception to this trend was the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, where risk levels stood at 3,171 basis points at the end of October, and even shot up to more than 5,000 basis points following the Government’s announcement that it would be restructuring its debt and the country’s failure to meet interest payment deadlines, which resulted in a downgrade to selective default by credit rating agencies.

Figure III.9

Latin America (15 countries): debt issuance in international markets, January-October 2016 and 2017

(Millions of dollars)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of figures from the Latin Finance Bonds Database.

Figure III.10

Latin America (13 countries): sovereign risk according to the Emerging Markets Bond Index Global (EMBIG), January 2012-October 2017

(Basis points)

EMBIG level at:

31 December 2015

31 December 2016

31 October 2017

Argentina

438

455

361

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

250

83

204

Brazil

548

330

237

Chile

253

158

118

Colombia

317

225

183

Dominican Republic

421

407

278

Ecuador

1 266

647

563

Mexico

315

296

247

Panama

214

187

124

Paraguay

338

281

196

Peru

240

170

136

Uruguay

280

244

154

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

2 807

2 168

3 171

Latin America

605

473

403

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of figures from JP Morgan.

Box III.2

Link between terms of trade, capital flows and economic activity in the region

Commodity price trends have a strong impact on terms of trade in the region, particularly for a number of South American countries where commodities and the manufactured products derived from them account for a large portion of the export basket. Also, global financial market conditions (degree of liquidity and financial tensions) determine the availability of external financing for the countries of the region. The impact of these two external factors on these countries’ economic growth has changed over time.

In the 1990s, capital flows, particularly portfolio flows (investments by non-residents in stocks and bonds in the region’s countries) were closely linked to regional growth, but this link weakened considerably from 2000 onwards (see figure 1).

Figure 1

Latin America: economic growth, terms of trade and capital flows

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures and International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Economic Outlook Database, October 2017 [online] https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/01/weodata/index.aspx.

Meanwhile, at the beginning of the analysis period the correlation between the terms of trade and regional economic growth was weak, but grew much stronger from 2000 onwards. The latter trend stemmed partly from stronger FDI in the same period, as a large share of this FDI —particularly in South America— was focused on the natural resources sector (see figure 2). In the 1990s, the crises in the region involved sudden stops in portfolio flows, while in the past few years, the shocks in terms of trade were the main cause —in terms of external factors—of declining growth in several commodity-exporting countries, and thus, of the weak average economic growth in the region.

Figure 2

South America: net FDI flows, by sector

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC).

[1] See Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), International Trade Outlook for Latin America and the Caribbean, 2017 (LC/PUB.2017/22-P), Santiago, 2017.

[2] In March 2015, the Ecuadorian Government implemented tariff surcharges between 5% and 45% to around 3,000 tariff lines (38% of the total). The safeguards were eliminated on 1 June 2017.

[3] The Baltic Dry Index (BDI) average for 2017 is 37% higher than the 2016 average. This index measures the price of shipping major commodities (metals, grains, fuels and more) along the main global sea routes, and is produced by the London-based Baltic Exchange.

[4] Between January and August 2017, tourist arrivals by subregion grew 4.4% in the Caribbean, 3.7% in Central America and 6.7% in South America (World Tourism Organization, WTO), UNTWO World Tourism Barometer, vol. 15, October 2017.

[5] The income account has long been structurally negative in the region, as a result of outward remittances of profits on FDI and interest on external debt.

[6] Between 2003 and 2012, FDI flows into the region grew almost fivefold in nominal terms, from US$ 42.502 billion in 2003 to US$ 203.5 billion in 2012.

[7] The quasi-sovereign sector includes public sector development banks and State-owned enterprises, among other entities. The supranational sector includes regional development banks, such as the Development Bank of Latin America (CAF) and the Central American Bank for Economic Integration (CABEI).

[8] See PEMEX, “Pemex coloca el bono en euros más grande en la historia de los mercados emergentes”[online, in Spanish] http://www.pemex.com/saladeprensa/boletines_nacionales/Paginas/2017-011-nacional.aspx and El Economista, “Emisión de deuda del sector público rompe récord en el 2016” [online, in Spanish] https://www.eleconomista.com.mx/economia/Emision-de-deuda-del-sector-publico-rompe-record-en-el-2016-20170228-0071.html.

Chapter IV

Economic activity

The recovery of economic growth in Latin America is slowly strengthening

Economic activity is expanding, driven by the recovery of domestic demand and export growt

After declining for 13 consecutive quarters and thanks to the rebound in South America, gross fixed capital formation expanded in Latin America, while it fell in Mexico and Central America

Agriculture, commerce and manufacturing are the sectors driving economic growth

The recovery of economic growth in Latin America is slowly strengthening

In 2016, economic activity in the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean recorded its worst performance since the global financial crisis, with the region’s GDP posting a drop of 1.0%. Nevertheless, as early as the first quarter of 2016, Latin America’s GDP showed the first sign of a possible reversion of the downward trend, when the region’s GDP marked a turning point and after which it has maintained an upward trend, with the highest rate of growth in three years being recorded in the third quarter of 2017 (see figure IV.1).

Figure IV.1

Latin America: year-on-year change in quarterly GDP, weighted averages, first quarter of 2013-third quarter of 2017

(Percentages, on the basis of dollars at constant 2010 prices)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

During the first three quarters of 2017, the regional growth rate rose by 1.2% over the same period the previous year, compared with -0.5% of GDP in the last quarter of 2016. In Argentina (2.5%), Brazil (0.6%), Colombia (1.5%), Ecuador (2.8%), Honduras (5.1%), Nicaragua (5.4%), Panama (5.8%) and Uruguay (3.6%), the semi-annual economic activity growth rates show an increase in the rate of expansion of economic activity compared to the levels of dynamism posted in the second half of 2016.[1] In Brazil, GDP growth over the two most recent quarters (0.4% and 1.4%, respectively) has been considerable, since over the previous 12 quarters the economy had been growing at negative rates.

After the contraction registered in 2016, the GDP of Latin America and the Caribbean will grow by 1.3% in 2017, although, as is typical in the region, the performances of certain specific countries and subregions will diverge significantly from the general trend. The 2017 growth in the region’s GDP will translate into an increase of 0.3% in the region’s per capita GDP. While this increase is modest, it is outstrips the growth rates recorded over the past two years, when, on average, annual drops of 1.7% were reported. A rebound in the region’s economic dynamics is expected in 2018, with a higher rate of average growth. The economies of South America will grow by 0.8% this year, after two years of economic downturn. For the group comprising the economies of Central America, Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Haiti, a growth rate of 3.3% is expected this year, a level similar to the 2016 result. Forecasts for the English- and Dutch-speaking Caribbean indicate average growth rates of 0.1% in 2017, a figure that reflects the damage wrought by Hurricanes Irma and María in some of the subregion’s countries.

Economic activity is expanding, driven by the recovery of domestic demand and export growth

After the downturn posted in 2016, the GDP of Latin America and the Caribbean will grow by 1.3% in 2017. This improvement in GDP performance comes on the back of rising domestic demand, for both consumption and investment, as well as rising external demand. Domestic demand rose by 1.5% over the first three quarters of 2017. That was on account of increases of 2.3% in investment and 1.7% in private consumption and, to a lesser extent, of a 0.1% rise in public consumption.

The growth in investment is the result of larger changes in inventories, which in the fourth quarter of 2016 embarked on a positive path that increased their contribution to GDP (amounting to 0.3 percentage points of GDP in the fourth quarter of 2016 and 0.8 percentage points of GDP in the first three quarters of this year). This result can be explained by the positive contribution made by changes in inventories in all the economies of South America, with the exception of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (see figure IV.2).

Figure IV.2

Latin America: GDP growth rates and contribution by expenditure components to growth, first quarter of 2013-third quarter of 2017

(Percentage points)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

The positive evolution of real wages —since the low inflation rates recorded more than offset the slower growth in nominal wages— and the recovery of migrant remittances in some countries are behind the increase in private consumption seen so far this year. This positive effect on private consumption offset the relatively low dynamism of domestic credit and the worsening employment situation (the urban unemployment rate in Latin America and the Caribbean rose over last year’s result). Meanwhile, the fiscal adjustments implemented by several of the region’s governments continued to weigh on public consumption.

Moving on to foreign trade in goods and services, the improved performance of domestic demand and the more encouraging international context allowed imports and exports to expand. Thus, the contribution of exports to GDP was three times the 0.4 percentage point result posted in 2016. However, since import volumes rose faster than exports, net exports over the first three quarters of 2017 made a negative contribution of -0.9 percentage points to GDP.

The quarterly dynamics show that at the subregional level —certain outliers notwithstanding— the clear contrast in trends that had existed between the South America and the group comprising Central America, the Dominican Republic and Mexico since 2013 evaporated in the third quarter of 2017. While South America hit a turning point in the second quarter of 2016 and began to post improvements, the Central America, Dominican Republic and Mexico group continue along the path they have followed over the past few years. In South America, the expenditure components that contributed to GDP growth in 2017 were, initially, the recovery of investment, through increased inventories, and, at a later point, an uptick in private consumption. In the third quarter, however, both in South America and in the group comprising Central America, the Dominican Republic and Mexico, GDP growth was on account of the contribution made by private consumption and exports (see figure IV.3).

After declining for 13 consecutive quarters and thanks to the rebound in South America, gross fixed capital formation expanded in Latin America, while it fell in Mexico and Central America

After falling for 13 consecutive quarters at an average annual rate of 4.4%, the region’s gross fixed capital formation rose by 0.7% in the third quarter of 2017. The downturn was attributable in its entirety to the drop in gross fixed capital formation in South America, particularly in Brazil. However, in the third quarter of 2017, this decline in South America was reversed, when an increase of 1.0% was reported. Over the same period, however, gross fixed capital formation in the group comprising Central America, the Dominican Republic and Mexico fell by 0.9% (see figure IV.4).

Figure IV.3

Mexico, Central America and South America: GDP growth rates and contribution by expenditure components to growth, first quarter of 2013-third quarter of 2017

(Percentage points)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

Figure IV.4

Latin America: changes in gross fixed capital formation on the same quarter the previous year, weighted averages, first quarter of 2014-third quarter of 2017

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

Agriculture, commerce and manufacturing are the sectors driving economic growth

Activity in the commercial sector, which partly reflects the evolution of private consumption and which had been falling since the fourth quarter of 2015, reported a modest spike in the fourth quarter of 2016, with further increases in the first and second quarters of 2017. This behaviour in the region’s commercial activity was on account of an uptick in private consumption. Likewise, the recovery of the external sector, coupled with greater dynamism in domestic demand, was reflected in the growth of the transport and communications sectors and manufacturing industry. The contribution of the region’s agricultural sector also rose by around half a percentage point thanks to the higher rate of growth in the sector posted by Brazil.

In contrast, the poor performance of the construction sector activity, which reflects investment dynamics, continues to make a negative contribution to growth. Similarly, mining and quarrying contribute negatively to GDP growth and, because of their falling levels of activity, this is the sector with the largest negative impact (see figure IV.5).

Figure IV.5

Latin America: value added growth rates and contribution by economic sectors, first quarter of 2015-second quarter of 2017

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

[1] The semi-annual growth rate figures for Argentina, Brazil and Colombia indicate growth over three quarters.

Chapter V

Domestic prices

Inflation has fallen in the region, with clearly differentiated patterns between subregions

Food price inflation fell more quickly than core inflation and inflation slowed more rapidly in tradable goods than in non-tradables

Inflation has fallen in the region, with clearly differentiated patterns between subregions

During the first 10 months of 2017, average inflation in Latin America and the Caribbean continued the downward trend that started in mid-2016, falling by 2.9 percentage points year-on-year (from 8.2% at October 2016 to 5.3% at October 2017). Figure V.1 clearly shows that current inflation levels in the region are the lowest they have been since the beginning of 2014.

Figure V.1

Latin America and the Caribbean: consumer price index (CPI), weighted average 12-month rates of variation, January 2014-October 2017

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

Figure V.1 illustrates the speed of the disinflation the region has seen in recent months. Between May 2016 —when it peaked at 8.9%— and October 2017, regional inflation fell by 360 basis points, at about 20 basis points per month; this represented a 40% drop. Nevertheless, there has been a slight increase since July 2017, bringing an end to 13 consecutive months of declining inflation in the region.

Figure V.1 also points to a sharper divergence in inflation patterns between the different subregions of Latin America and the Caribbean. Between October 2016 and October 2017, inflation dropped by 5.7 percentage points in South America and by 3.5 percentage points in the Caribbean, falling from 10.6% to 4.9% and 7.2% to 3.7%, respectively. At the same time, in Central America and Mexico, inflation rose by 2.6 percentage points, from 3.4% in 2016 to 6.0% in 2017 (see table V.1). Although different factors contributed to these subregional disparities, exchange-rate dynamics and anti-inflationary monetary policies were certainly the most significant. While currency appreciation in the economies of the south of the continent has helped to drive down prices, the depreciation of currencies in the Central America and Mexico group has sparked an increase in inflation. Furthermore, the adoption of policies aimed at disinflation in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia and Suriname has led to a sharp decline in inflation.

Table V.1

Latin America and the Caribbean: 12-month rates of change in consumer price indices (CPI), October 2015-October 2017

(Percentages)

At October 2015

At October 2016

At October 2017

At December 2015

At December 2016

Latin America and the Caribbeana

7.2

8.2

5.3

7.9

7.3

South Americaa

9.5

10.6

4.9

10.6

9.1

Argentinab

22.4

43.4

22.9

27.5

38.5

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

4.3

3.5

3.0

3.0

4.0

Brazil

9.9

7.9

2.7

10.7

6.3

Chile

4.0

2.8

1.9

4.4

2.7

Colombia

5.9

6.5

4.0

6.8

5.7

Ecuador

3.5

1.3

-0.1

3.4

1.1

Paraguay

3.2

3.6

4.9

3.1

3.9

Peru

3.7

3.4

2.0

4.4

3.2

Uruguay

9.2

8.5

6.0

9.4

8.1

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

156.1

…

…

180.9

…

Central America and Mexico

2.7

3.4

6.0

2.7

3.7

Costa Rica

-0.9

0.6

2.3

-0.8

0.8

Dominican Republic

1.2

0.9

3.5

2.3

1.7

El Salvador

-0.2

-0.9

1.6c

1.0

-0.9

Guatemala

2.2

4.8

4.2

3.1

4.2

Haiti

11.7

13.3

15.6d

12.5

14.3

Honduras

2.5

2.8

4.0

2.4

3.3

Mexico

2.5

3.1

6.4

2.1

3.4

Nicaragua

2.8

3.4

4.6

2.9

3.1

Panama

-0.4

1.4

0.5

0.3

1.5

The Caribbean

1.4

7.2

3.7

3.3

5.4

Antigua and Barbuda

1.2

-1.1

2.2e

0.9

-1.1

Bahamas

1.5

0.5

2.7e

2.0

0.8

Barbados

-2.4

2.0

1.2f

-2.3

3.2

Belize

-0.8

0.7

0.7d

-0.6

1.1

Dominica

-0.6

0.2

1.3e

-0.5

0.6

Grenada

0.7

1.0

1.5e

1.1

0.9

Guyana

-1.4

1.2

1.8d

-1.8

1.4

Jamaica

2.0

1.8

4.6c

3.7

1.7

Saint Kitts and Nevis

-4.0

1.2

0.5e

-2.4

0.0

Saint Lucia

-3.1

-2.1

-0.3d

-2.6

-2.8

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

-2.0

0.7

1.9e

-2.1

1.0

Suriname

4.1

75.6

16.2d

25.2

49.2

Trinidad and Tobago

3.1

2.5

1.2c

1.5

3.1

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Excludes the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela owing to the lack of official information from December 2015.

b For 2017, the series was spliced with that of the consumer price index of the Greater Buenos Aires Province for the purposes of year-on-year comparison.

c Data to September 2017.

d Data to August 2017.

e Data to March 2017.

f Data to June 2017.

At the country level, between October 2016 and October 2017, inflation dropped in 14 of the region’s economies, 8 of which are in South America. Significant declines —by more than 20 percentage points— were posted in Argentina and Suriname. However, inflation picked up in 16 economies: 7 in the Central America and Mexico subregion and 9 in the non-Spanish-speaking Caribbean. While inflation quickened in the economies of the Central America and Mexico group, only in Mexico was it outside of the target range set by monetary authorities. In the Caribbean countries that saw a pick-up in inflation, only Jamaica registered rates higher than 4%.

With regard to the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, although neither the Central Bank nor the National Institute of Statistics have published information on prices since December 2015, Central Bank figures for 2016 released by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) show inflation reaching 302.7% that year. In 2017, the National Assembly published data on monthly inflation using a national index, which showed inflation climbing over the year, from 18% in January to 45.5% in October. The data point to cumulative inflation of 825%.

Food price inflation fell more quickly than core inflation and inflation slowed more rapidly in tradable goods than in non-tradables

In 2017, inflation in foods and non-alcoholic beverages in the region fell by 6.7 percentage points year-on-year from 10.2% in October 2016 to 3.5% in October 2017; the drop was 4.8 percentage points when compared with December 2016 (8.3%). In the South American economies, food price inflation was down by 10.9 percentage points, from 13.2% in October 2016 to 2.3% in October 2017. Of the eight countries in which this occurred, Argentina and Brazil recorded double-digit falls. In Central America and Mexico, food price inflation was down in only two countries (Haiti and Panama), but picked up in the other economies; as a result, the average for this subregion rose by 1.7 percentage points between October 2016 (4.3%) and October 2017 (6.0%).

Core inflation in Latin America and the Caribbean also fell in that period. In South America, it dropped from 9.9% in October 2016 to 5.7% in the same month of 2017, representing a fall of 4.2 percentage points, while in Central America and Mexico, it rose by 0.2 percentage points, from 3.5% to 3.7%. The countries that recorded the largest year-on-year declines in core inflation in October 2017 were Argentina (18.1 percentage points) and Haiti (15 percentage points); the greatest increase occurred in Mexico (see figure V.2)

As with the other components of headline inflation, average tradable goods inflation fell in Latin America and the Caribbean, from 9.9% in October 2016 to 3.8% in the same month of 2017. Once again, the fall in South America (down 9.8 percentage points from 13% in October 2016) was responsible for the drop in the regional average since, by contrast, this category of inflation in Central America and Mexico rose by 1.3 percentage points, climbing from 4.0% in October 2016 to 5.3% in October 2017. Inflation eased the most in the economies of Argentina, Brazil and Haiti, while Costa Rica, Mexico and the Dominican Republic showed the largest increases.

Figure V.2

Latin America and the Caribbean: consumer price index (CPI), weighted average 12-month rates of variation in headline, core, food, goods and services inflation, January 2014-October 2017

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

Chapter VI

Employment and wages

Unemployment rose on account of weak job creation and a rebound in entries into the labour market

There is a slight reduction in differentials in employment and participation between men and women, but not in the unemployment gap

Regional wage employment began to grow, but still very slowly, and average job quality fell again

Real wages increased moderately in most countries, bolstering household consumption

The urban unemployment rate in Latin America and the Caribbean is forecast to rise from 8.9% in 2016 to an average of 9.4% in 2017. That will give an cumulative increase of 2.5 percentage points since 2014 and a rise of 7 million unemployed people (from 15.8 million to 22.8 million) in the region’s urban areas between 2014 and 2017. It is the highest rate since 2005, which means that a considerable part of the significant progress the region made during the 2000s and the first years of the 2010s will have been lost. Over the year, however, the year-on-year decline eased gradually, and the first reduction in the urban unemployment rate since 2014 is expected in 2018.

Unemployment rose on account of weak job creation and a rebound in entries into the labour market

This new increase in urban unemployment was due, first, to the persistent weakness of job creation, since the urban employment rate has been falling steadily in year-on-year terms since the second quarter of 2014. However, as occurred with the urban unemployment rate, this decline became less pronounced as the year progressed and, for the region as a whole, the average employment rate is expected to fall only slightly during 2017, by around 0.1 of a percentage point. As will be shown below, this drop in the employment rate was again related to the weak creation of wage employment, reflecting slow economic growth and the correspondingly lacklustre demand for labour; however, in terms of the number of people employed, this was partially offset by the increase in unwaged employment.

At the same time, weak job creation was accompanied by a relatively large increase in the unemployment rate. This was caused by a significant expansion of the labour supply, seen in a rise of some 0.3 percentage points in the urban participation rate.

Figure VI.1 shows how, since 2016, the dynamics of the labour supply and job creation have reinforced each other to raise the unemployment rate, while in the preceding two years, a falling participation rate had eased the impact of falling employment on unemployment figures.[1] The greatest contribution to increased urban unemployment made by changes in the labour participation rate —almost 0.5 percentage points— was registered in 2016. While the influence of the labour supply fell in 2017 and its impact on the rise in the unemployment rate was approximately 0.4 percentage points, this year it had a greater relative impact than weak job creation.

Up until 2013, the change in the employment rate helped reduce the unemployment rate; since then, the region’s low (in 2014 and 2017) and negative (in 2015 and 2016) economic growth caused a drop in the proportion of the population of working age who were employed, with the corresponding impact on unemployment. That impact peaked in 2016, when it had an influence of 1.1 percentage points on the unemployment rate; in contrast, in 2017 it will have a lower influence than the labour supply, with an impact of around 0.1 of a percentage point.

Figure VI.1

Latin America and the Caribbean: contributions of changes in the rates of participation and employment to changes in the urban unemployment rate, 2012-2017

(percentage points)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

Note: Since the figure depicts the contributions of the employment and participation rates to changes in the unemployment rate, increases in the employment rate are indicated by negative figures, while drops in the employment rate are shown by positive figures.

a Estimates.

Over the course of the year, in line with the gradual reactivation of the region’s economy, both the employment and unemployment rates improved, after both indicators posted the largest year-on-year deteriorations in the second quarter of 2016. As shown in figure VI.2, in one group of 11 Latin American and Caribbean countries, the year-on-year drop in the urban employment rate declined gradually and, in the third quarter of 2017, improved very slightly compared to the same quarter the previous year. At the same time, the increase in the urban unemployment rate slowed continuously and, in the third quarter of 2017, the year-on-year increase was minimal. Taking into account the dynamics of economic growth up to the end of 2017 and the forecasts for 2018, these trends indicate that both indicators will post modest improvements next year.

Figure VI.2

Latin America and the Caribbean (11 countries): urban participation, employment and unemployment rates (rolling years) and year-on-year changes (weighted averages), first quarter of 2014 to third quarter of 2017a

(Percentages and percentage points)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a The countries covered are Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Jamaica, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay. Some estimates based on incomplete data are included.

b Preliminary data.

As in 2016, the region’s 2017 results were strongly influenced by the performance of the Brazilian labour market where, while the deterioration eased over the year, the unemployment rate rose again quite sharply: the average for the first three quarters increased from 11.3% to 13.1% nationally, and from 12.8% to 14.7% in the 20 largest metropolitan regions. However, deteriorating labour indicators were a relatively widespread phenomenon. This was especially true in South America, where the unemployment rate increased —albeit moderately— in six of the eight countries with available data (Chile, Colombia, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay, in addition to Brazil); in contrast, Argentina and Ecuador posted falling unemployment rates. The preliminary results were somewhat more favourable in the Caribbean —with unemployment falling in the Bahamas and Jamaica but rising in Barbados, Belize and Trinidad and Tobago— and, most particularly, in Mexico and Central America: among the countries of that subregion for which information is available, only Panama reported a worsening unemployment rate; the figures remained stable in Guatemala and fell in Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Mexico and Nicaragua.[2]

There is a slight reduction in differentials in employment and participation between men and women, but not in the unemployment gap

The main employment variables for men and women evolved unevenly in the region’s countries over the year. Figure VI.3 shows the median year-on-year variations in the rates of participation, employment and unemployment for men and women in the countries with national total data available for the first three quarters of 2017. The figures indicate that the increase in the median value of the participation rate was on account of the stronger labour insertion of women: the female participation rate rose by 0.4 percentage points, while that of men posted a slight decrease. The result of this is a continuation of the long-term trend towards a reduced gender gap in labour participation; in absolute terms, however, the gap remains wide.[3]

Figure VI.3

Latin America and the Caribbean (18 countries): year-on-year changes in participation, employment and unemployment rates by sex, median values, first three quarters 2017a

(Percentage points)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a The countries covered are Argentina, the Bahamas, Barbados, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Trinidad and Tobago and Uruguay. Not all the countries have complete information for all three quarters.

In contrast to the weighted average variation in urban employment rates, the median figures for variations in the national employment rate remained unchanged. As with the participation rate, there is a contrast between the sexes: the median figure for the women’s employment rate rose by more than 0.2 percentage points, while the rate for men remained largely unchanged.[4]

Finally, in the median of those countries where information is available, the unemployment rate remained virtually stable for both men and women.[5] Among men, however, this was the result of largely unchanged participation and employment rates, while among women it occurred in a context of simultaneous increases in both variables. In any case, the severe gap between male and female unemployment rates remains in place, underscoring the difficulties many women face in trying to enter the labour market.[6]

Regional wage employment began to grow, but still very slowly, and average job quality fell again

Since 2013, own-account work has grown faster than wage employment, with particularly sharp differentials reported between 2014 and 2016.[7] This divergence reflects, first, the weakness of the demand for labour and thus of wage employment creation in private companies and the public sector. Second, it was the result of pressure from the labour supply, given that many households were forced to seek earnings from sources other than waged employment and to self-generate paid work, generally with precarious and volatile incomes and without social protection; thus, this increase indicates a deterioration in average job quality.

This trend continued in 2017: while the creation of wage jobs showed moderate levels of dynamism in some countries, in general those new jobs were not created in sufficient numbers to meet the needs of labour market entrants and, again, own-account work increased more rapidly than wage employment. Thus, in the weighted average of 12 countries for the third quarter of 2017, wage employment rose by 0.4% in comparison with the period between the first and third quarters of 2016, while the number of own-account workers increased by 1.1% and employment as a whole

by 0.8% (see figure VI.4).[8]

Figure VI.4

Latin America and the Caribbean (12 countries): economic growth and job creation dynamics, weighted averages, 2014-2017a

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a The countries covered are Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay and Peru.

b The growth rates for the employment categories are averages for the January-September period, while the economic growth figures are projections for the year as a whole.

Registered employment,[9] which is used as an indicator of formal, better quality jobs, evolved along lines similar to the patterns analysed above: (i) the creation of jobs of this kind was weak, (ii) the situation improved as the year progressed, and

(iii) countries in the north of the region posted more favourable results than the countries of South America.

Among South American countries in particular, the expansion of this type of employment remains very weak, with rates of growth in the third quarter generally not exceeding 1%. On the other hand, there was a clear upturn in Argentina and Brazil, with modest increases in the number of formally employed persons over the year, although the year-on-year change in Brazil remained negative. Despite the positive rates reported, the evolution of registered employment in Chile, Peru and Uruguay shows that the formal sector’s demand for labour remains depressed, especially compared to the expansion recorded in employment of this kind up until 2013 (see figure VI.5).

At the same time, three of the four economies in the north of Latin America for which monthly data are available posted increases in formal employment at rates in excess of 2%. Particularly notable in this regard were Mexico and Nicaragua, which are implementing programmes to formalize pre-existing jobs.[10]

Figure VI.5

Latin America (9 countries): year-on-year variation in registered employment, 2015-2017a

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Data indicate wage-earners contributing to social security systems, except in the case of Brazil where they refer to private sector wage-earners reported by firms to the General Registry on Employment and Unemployment, and Peru, where the figures represent employment reported in formal, non-agricultural small, medium and large firms.

b The year-on-year variation for 2017 refers to the averages for January-July in the case of Uruguay, January-August for Costa Rica and El Salvador, and January-September for Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Nicaragua and Peru.

The 2017 evolution of hourly underemployment[11] broadly reflected the uneven evolution of employment in the north and south of Latin America already outlined above. Among the countries in the north of the region with information available, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Mexico and Nicaragua reported improvements and only in Guatemala did hourly underemployment increase compared to the previous year. In contrast, among the South American countries, the hourly underemployment rate rose in Brazil, Chile, Ecuador and Peru, while it remained largely unchanged in Paraguay and Uruguay and fell slightly in Argentina and Colombia.

Employment by branch of activity also evolved unevenly, but the predominant pattern, indicated by the median growth rate figures, showed changes in some branches but not in others, compared to previous years. Agricultural activities, which had contracted in recent years, enjoyed a relatively healthy expansion, as indicated by the median values of those countries for which data are available. As a result, the sector increased its share of employment, led by some countries where it already accounts for a relatively high share, such as Ecuador and Guatemala; this might be the result of increases in the numbers of people engaged in small-scale farming caused by weak job creation in more productive and better paid activities (see figure VI.6). Another area where employment grew more than in previous years was manufacturing industry, where job growth between 2012 and 2016 reported very low —or even, in 2016, negative— results. In keeping with the sector’s reactivation across the region in 2017, relatively large increases were recorded. The situation was similar in the construction sector, where employment expanded only slowly between 2013 and 2016 and where, in several countries, there is now a degree of recovery. However, in other countries, such as Brazil, Colombia, Chile and Guatemala, employment in this sector declined from the 2016 level, so the increase in question was not a region-wide phenomenon.

Figure VI.6

Latin America and the Caribbean (13 countries): year-on-year variation in employment by sector of activity, median values and weighted averages, first three quarters of 2017a

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a The countries covered are Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Jamaica, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay and Peru.

Employment in financial services, real estate and business services tends to be markedly procyclical and, in recent years, it has risen much more slowly than the rates recorded since the mid-2000s, with 2016 posting a contraction. In 2017, several countries again lost jobs in those sectors but, in line with the rising output of those activities in the region, most countries reported relatively strong improvements. At the same time, commerce, transport, and community, social and personal services continued to grow at rates similar to those seen in the preceding years.

As can be seen in figure VI.6, the weighted average of changes in employment by sector shows some pronounced differences from the median value; this was caused, in particular, by weak job creation and the major changes in certain sectors in Brazil. Thus, in the weighted average, employment in the agricultural and construction sectors fell, whereas the median reports increases of different magnitudes.

Real wages increased moderately in most countries, bolstering household consumption

The evolution of the real wages for registered employment was shaped by the combined impact of the constrained demand for labour (and its implications for nominal wages) and the evolution of inflation. As shown in figure VI.7, in the group of countries from the northern subregion (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Mexico and Nicaragua), the nominal wage growth rate increased, but steeper inflation caused a slightly slower growth in real wages than in 2016. Lower increases in real wages were reported in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, while in Mexico, the acceleration of inflation caused a decline. In contrast, a combination of low inflation and a sharp rise in nominal wages —the result of a major increase in the minimum wage— led to a real-term gain of more than 4% in the average wages of social security contributors in El Salvador.

Figure VI.7

Latin America (10 countries): breakdown of year-on-year variation in real wages by subregions, simple average for 2016 and first three quarters of 2017a

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a The countries covered are Costa Rica, El Salvador, Mexico and Nicaragua in the northern subregion, and Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay in the southern subregion.

In contrast to the prevailing trend in the north of the region, the sharp drop in inflation in the South American countries for which figures are available (Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay) had a favourable impact on real wages that more than offset the slower growth in nominal wages. This was a key factor in stabilizing household purchasing power and thus driving consumption, and that was a major element in the 2017 revitalization of economic growth. In any event, real increases in wages were limited and, with the exception of Uruguay, did not exceed 2%.

As in previous years, the evolution of average wages in most of the countries was supported by wage policies that aimed at ensuring moderate increases in real-term minimum wages. Thus, the median real-term minimum wage for 18 Latin American and Caribbean countries rose by 2.8%.

In 2018, the return to economic growth is expected to have a positive impact on overall demand and job creation and, as a result, the region’s urban employment rate will increase slightly, for the first time since 2013. The impact of this increased job creation will be limited, however, as the trend of a moderately rising participation rate is expected to continue. Consequently, the region’s urban unemployment rate is forecast to fall slightly, by 0.2 percentage points, and to stand at an average of 9.2% in 2018. At the same time, because of the modest increase in the demand for labour and because inflation rates are generally being held in control, the trend of gradually rising real wages is expected to continue.

[1] This breakdown of the variation in the urban unemployment rate is based on the equation Ut = (Pt-Ot)/Pt, where, in year t, Ut represents the unemployment rate (unemployed persons as a proportion of the labour force), Pt is the participation rate (labour force as a proportion of the working age population) and Et is the employment rate (people employed as a proportion of the working age population). To distinguish the impact of changes in the rates of participation and employment on the unemployment rate, the breakdown ut = (Pt-1 – Et)/Pt-1 + (Pt – Et-1)/Pt is used, where the first term on the right represents the impact of the change in the employment rate and the second term indicates the impact of the change in the participation rate.

[2] The countries posting increases in their unemployment rates outnumbered those reporting decreases. If Brazil were excluded from the calculations, however, the region’s weighted average unemployment rate would fall, on account of the more favourable results in Argentina and Mexico.

[3] In 2016, the weighted average national participation rate in 24 Latin American and Caribbean countries was 75.1% for men and 49.8% for women (calculations based on CEPALSTAT database).

[4] In 2016, the regional employment rate (expressed as the weighted average of national rates) was 70.0% for men and 45.3% for women (calculations based on CEPALSTAT database).

[5] Note that this exercise uses nationwide rates, whereas the previous discussions centred on the evolution of the urban unemployment rate. The prevailing economic circumstances are better reflected in the open unemployment figure in urban areas than in rural areas.

[6] In 2016, the region’s urban unemployment rate was 7.9% for men and 10.2% for women (calculations based on CEPALSTAT database).

[7] In 2013, own-account work grew slightly more than wage employment. However, other categories of non-wage work expanded only weakly. Thus, the share of wage jobs in total employment increased, thereby maintaining the prevailing trend that started in 2004.

[8] The unusually low growth of own-account work was mainly due to its contraction during the first half of the year in Brazil, a phenomenon for which the causes are not apparent.

[9] In most cases, indicated by the numbers contributing to social security or its components.

[10] The high growth rates in registered employment —in these cases, clearly above the rate of economic growth— can only be explained by these policies. Indeed, it is unlikely that formal businesses will create new jobs with those levels of dynamism over lengthy periods, as that would imply a continuous decline in average labour productivity.

[11] Hourly underemployment refers to employed persons who work less than a minimum number of hours set in each country, who wish to work more hours and who are available to do so.

Chapter VII

Macroeconomic policies

A. Fiscal policy

Latin America’s primary deficit shrank in 2017, but rising interest payments drove up the total deficit in many countries

Public debt, measured as a percentage of GDP, was fairly stable in 2017

The upturn in economic activity in South America is reflected in higher tax revenues

Fiscal consolidation is mainly taking the form of the containment of public expenditure

B. Monetary and exchange-rate policies

Differences in monetary policies widen between the region’s south and north

Lending rates are headed downwards, while domestic credit for the private sector is increasing in Latin America but not in the Caribbean countries

The region’s currencies were more stable in 2017 than in 2016

After the depreciation seen in 2016, the real effective extraregional exchange rate appreciated in 2017

International reserves continue to rise

A. Fiscal policy

Latin America’s primary deficit shrank in 2017, but rising interest payments drove up the total deficit in many countries

Preliminary estimates for 2017 indicate that the primary deficit for the 17 reporting countries of Latin America declined from its 2016 level of -1.0% of GDP to -0.8% of GDP, as a result of a slowdown in public expenditure and the countries’ efforts to boost fiscal revenues (see figure VII.1). However, an upturn in the service on the public debt offset the improvement in the primary balance, and the overall balance therefore held steady at -3.1% of GDP. Given these factors, the adjustment of fiscal accounts had the effect of reducing the contribution of general government consumption to GDP growth to around zero, according to the corresponding national accounts.

Figure VII.1

Latin America and the Caribbean: overall and primary balances and interest payments, 2015-2017a b

(Percentages of GDP)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Simple averages. The figures for 2017 are official estimates taken from 2018 budget documents. The figures for Mexico correspond to the federal public sector, while those shown for Peru correspond to the general government. The data do not include figures for the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela or for the Plurinational State of Bolivia.

b The averages shown for the Caribbean do not include figures for Dominica, which registered a fiscal surplus of 35.1% of GDP in 2016 owing to the receipt of windfall gains.

However, as may be seen from figure VII.1, the fiscal performance of the various countries in Latin America varied substantially. On the one hand, at -0.2% of GDP in 2017 for the second year in a row, the average primary balance for Central America, the Dominican Republic, Haiti and Mexico was nearly at equilibrium. This trend towards smaller primary deficits is largely attributable to the efforts of these countries’ governments to overcome the fiscal challenges that they faced in the wake of the 2008-2009 global crisis, and this was particularly true of the Dominican Republic and Honduras. Some of the countries in this group did have large primary deficits, however, as was the case of Costa Rica (-2.9% of GDP in 2017) and Panama (-2.4% of GDP). On the other hand, higher interest payments –which rose from an average of 2.0% of GDP in 2016 to 2.2% of GDP– pushed up the total deficit from -2.1% of GDP in 2016 to -2.4% of GDP in 2017.

South America’s average primary deficit, although still significant, narrowed for the first time in five years, falling from -1.9% of GDP in 2016 to -1.5% of GDP in 2017. This downward trend was quite widespread: of the eight countries reporting these figures, the primary balance improved in five of them. Nevertheless, the size of the primary deficit remained significant in 2017 in a number of countries, including Argentina (-2.5% of GDP), Brazil (-2.2% of GDP), Chile (-1.9% of GDP), Ecuador (-2.4% of GDP) and Peru (-1.7% of GDP). The impact that the reduction in the primary deficit had on the overall deficit (which shrank from -4.2% of GDP in 2016 to -3.9% of GDP) was undone to some extent by the increase in the service on the public debt, which climbed from 2.3% of GDP in 2016 to 2.4% of GDP.

In the Caribbean, the average primary surplus held at 1.2% of GDP in 2017 for the second year running. However, the need to generate large primary surpluses in order to cope with these countries’ hefty public debts continues to constrain the role of fiscal policy in driving the subregion’s growth. Although the average primary balance for the subregion is relatively stable, an upward trend in the primary deficit has been observed in some countries that specialize in the production of raw materials, such as Guyana (from -3.5% of GDP in 2016 to -4.5% of GDP in 2017) and Trinidad and Tobago (from -2.9% in 2016 to -5.4% of GDP).

Public debt, measured as a percentage of GDP, was fairly stable in 2017

In the third quarter of 2017, Latin America’s gross public debt amounted to 38.4% of GDP, which was similar to the level recorded at the close of 2016. Although the simple average of the public debt hardly changed at all, the number of countries that witnessed an increase in their level of debt rose; this was offset by a decline in debt levels in 7 of the 19 countries of the region, however. In many of the countries, the upswing in debt levels was primarily fueled by increased sovereign debt issues undertaken in an effort to find new sources of financing.

Brazil continues to be the country with the largest public debt, at 73.9% of GDP, followed by Argentina, with a debt equivalent to 53.7% of GDP, and Honduras, with a debt amounting to 47.8% of GDP. At the other end of the spectrum, Paraguay has the smallest public debt in the region (20.8% of GDP), followed by Peru (21.2% of GDP) and Guatemala (23.5% of GDP) (see figure VII.2).

At the subregional level, South America’s gross public debt expanded by 0.8 percentage points of GDP to 38.7% of GDP, on average, with the sharpest upswings being recorded for Brazil (4.0 points), Chile (2.5 points) and Ecuador (1.5 points). In the group comprising Central America, Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Mexico, the level of indebtedness slipped by 0.2 percentage points of GDP to an average of 38.0% of GDP, despite increases in Costa Rica (2.6 points), Honduras (2.3 points) and the Dominican Republic (2.1 points). South America’s level of indebtedness has climbed so sharply since 2015 that it overtook the average level of public debt in Central America and other economies in the north of the region in 2017.

In the Caribbean, as of the third quarter of 2017, central government debt amounted to 70.9% of GDP, for a drop of 1.5 percentage points from its 2016 level. The overall trend is towards a downturn in the rate of public indebtedness, with only 4 out of the 13 reporting countries seeing an upswing in debt levels. Barbados and Jamaica still have debt levels of over 100% of GDP (102.7% and 109.5% of GDP for 2017, respectively), but they both reduced their levels of indebtedness substantially, as did Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica and Saint Kitts and Nevis (see figure VII.2B).

Figure VII.2

Latin America and the Caribbean: gross public debt of the central government, 2016-2017a

(Percentages of GDP)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a The figures for 2017 cover the first three quarters, except for Argentina, the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Chile, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Haiti and Uruguay, for which they cover the first two quarters.

b In the case of Brazil, the coverage corresponds to general government. For 2017 debt is 69.9% of GDP for the federal government, 3.4% of GDP for state governments and 0.5% of GDP for the municipal governments.

c The figures shown for Guyana and Jamaica correspond to the public sector.

The relative stability of public debt in Latin America, despite the persistence of sizeable fiscal deficits, can be better understood by analyzing the components of public debt trends.[1] As depicted in figure VII.3, the slight increase in public debt in South America in 2017 —0.6 percentage points of GDP— can be accounted for, in large part, by the steep adjustment in the value of assets (the stock-flow effect) and the strengthening real growth rate. This counteracted the effect that variations in the interest rate and the primary deficit had on the expansion of public debt. Something similar occurred in the northern Latin American countries, where a greater stock-flow effect in 2017 curbed the growth of the public debt.

These trends in central government indebtedness are not necessarily reflected in the behaviour of non-financial public-sector gross debt. As can be seen in figure VII.4, in 2017 borrowing by public enterprises slowed —as it also did in the rest of the general government, although, in most of the countries, this subdivision accounts for no more than a small fraction of the non-financial public-sector debt. The level of indebtedness of public enterprises in Ecuador and Peru was on the rise, however. In Peru, the increase in the indebtedness of public enterprises is largely accounted for by the issue of US$ 2 billion in PetroPeru bonds in June 2017.

Figure VII.3

Latin America: gross public debt, 2008-2017

(Percentages of GDP)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Excluding figures for the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.

Figure VII.4

Latin America (12 countries): change in the non-financial public sector’s and central government’s gross public debt, 2016-2017

(Percentage points of GDP)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

The cost of the public debt has been edging upward. The average cost for the region reached 2.3% of GDP in 2017, for a 0.2 percentage-point increase over the figure for 2016. At the country level, Brazil continued to have the largest interest-rate bill at 5.7% of GDP, followed by Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic, with 3.2% of GDP each. Chile and Paraguay, on the other hand, had debt costs of below 1% of GDP. At the subregional level, South America’s debt costs averaged 2.4% of GDP, while those of Central America, Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Mexico amounted to 2.2% of GDP. In the Caribbean, the cost of the public debt was equivalent to 3.5% of GDP, with Barbados and Jamaica shouldering the heaviest debt burdens on fiscal accounts (7% of GDP) (see figure VII.5).

Figure VII.5

Latin America and the Caribbean: interest payments on the central government’s gross public debt, 2017a

(Percentage points of GDP)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a The figures for Peru correspond to the general government and the figures for Mexico correspond to the federal public sector.

The upturn in economic activity in South America is reflected in higher tax revenues

The reactivation of economic activity in South America has spurred an upswing in tax receipts. As shown in figure VII.6, revenues from the value added tax began to climb —and their year-on-year growth rate moved into the black— in a number of South American countries in 2017 after having plunged in 2016. This trend is especially clear in Argentina and Brazil, although it should be noted that the year-on-year variation in both of these countries was still hovering around zero as of the third quarter. In Colombia, the tax reform approved in late 2016, which raised the general value added tax (VAT) rate from 16% to 19% as of February 2017, had a strong impact.

Figure VII.6

Latin America (selected countries): 12-month cumulative year-on-year variation in real value added tax receipts, 2015-2017

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a The VAT figures given for Brazil are the sum of receipts from the federal manufactures tax (IPI) and the state tax on merchandise and services (ICMS).

In contrast, rates of increase in value added tax receipts in Central America, the Dominican Republic and Mexico slowed somewhat. As shown in figure VII.6, the real growth rates recorded by almost all of these countries in the third quarter of 2017 were lower than their end-2016 levels. This is chiefly accounted for by a slight slowdown in GDP growth and in private consumption, in particular, together with the statistical effects of a high basis of comparison in some countries, such as Nicaragua and Mexico.

In line with these trends, total central government revenues in Latin America are expected to have remained fairly stable in 2017 at around 18.2% of GDP (see figure VII.7). Tax receipts (excluding receipts associated with asset regularization programmes) edged up to 15.6% of GDP in 2017 from 15.5% of GDP in 2016. Other income, composed primarily of non-tax revenues and grants and donations, remained at 2.6%, on average.

Although total revenues were fairly stable for Latin America as a whole, the average figure is the result of countervailing trends in the subregions. On the one hand, the slowdown in tax receipts in the northern part of the region was reflected in a slight decrease in the central government tax ratio, which slipped from 14.1% of GDP in 2016 to 14.0% of GDP in 2017 (see figure VII.7). Particularly sharp decreases were seen in Honduras (-0.4 percentage points of GDP) and Mexico (-0.9 percentage points of GDP). As a result, total revenues dropped by one tenth of a point (from 16.6% of GDP to 16.5%).

In South America, on the other hand, although total revenues are projected to hold steady at 20.2% of GDP, the tax take (excluding receipts associated with asset regularization programmes) rose to 17.4% of GDP in 2017 from 17.2% in 2016.[2] While this uptick did not completely make up for the absence of the windfall gains registered in 2016 (0.3% of GDP, on average) it marked a significant trend change for the subregion. Particularly notable increases in tax receipts were seen in Chile (0.2 percentage points of GDP, or 0.5 percentage points if the revenues from asset registration in 2016 are excluded), Colombia (0.6 percentage points of GDP), Ecuador (0.8 percentage points of GDP) and Uruguay (0.7 percentage points of GDP).

Figure VII.7

Latin America and the Caribbean: breakdown of total central government revenues, 2015-2017a b

(Percentages of GDP)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Simple averages. The figures for 2017 are official estimates taken from 2018 budget documents. The figures for Mexico correspond to the federal public sector, while those shown for Peru correspond to the general government. The data do not include figures for the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela or the Plurinational State of Bolivia.

b The averages for the Caribbean do not include data for Dominica.

In the Caribbean, total revenues climbed from 27.4% of GDP in 2016 to 27.7% of GDP in 2017, although these averages are the sum total of sharply varying results at the national level. Substantial upswings in the tax take are projected for Antigua and Barbuda (1.9 percentage points of GDP) and Belize (1.1 percentage points of GDP), thanks to new tax enforcement measures —especially in the case of property taxes— and the introduction of new taxes, such as the tax now being levied on the earnings of international banks in Antigua and Barbuda. On the other hand, total revenues for Trinidad and Tobago slid from 30.8% of GDP in 2016 to 25.0% of GDP in 2017 owing to steep decreases in both tax receipts (-2.0 percentage points of GDP) and non-tax income (-3.8 percentage points of GDP).

Fiscal (both tax and non-tax) revenues from non-renewable natural resources in the region also rose in step with the upswing in raw material prices, although price levels are still far below what they were in the wake of the international economic and financial crisis of 2008-2009. For example, income from mining in Chile and Peru is expected to double, but will still remain at levels well below those of the raw materials boom. Oil revenues are also on the rise overall, but widely disparate trends are to be observed at the national level, with upswings in Brazil and Ecuador and slight downturns in Mexico and in Trinidad and Tobago.

Fiscal consolidation is mainly taking the form of the containment of public expenditure

The persistence of public-sector deficits has put greater pressure on the region’s governments to adopt fiscal consolidation measures. The deterioration of primary balances in recent years in South America and in some countries in Central America, in particular, has brought the issue of the sustainability of the public debt to the fore. Despite this pressure, however, it is very difficult for these governments to make cuts at a time of relatively slow economic growth in a region that is still marked by such striking structural gaps.

These tensions are most apparent in South America, where many countries have restricted the expansion of public spending but few have managed to make any substantial cuts. As shown in figure VII.8, the growth rate in total primary expenditure, which excludes interest payments, was reined back sharply in 2016. In 2017, spending picked up somewhat in some countries, but nonetheless climbed at a slower rate than in earlier years. Noteworthy developments in this respect included reductions in spending in real terms in Colombia and Peru and the near-zero growth of expenditure in Brazil.

Figure VII.8

Latin America (selected countries): 12-month cumulative year-on-year variation in real central government primary expenditure, 2015-2017

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

In the northern part of Latin America, trends in public expenditure have been less uniform and reflect sharply differing situations across those countries. As may be seen from figure VII.8B, the real growth rate of public expenditure in Costa Rica and El Salvador remained fairly even in the first three quarters of 2017, whereas it slumped in Nicaragua —following a steep increase in 2016— and in Mexico, where it actually contracted.

These trends notwithstanding, average total expenditure in Latin America is projected to hold steady at 21.3% of GDP for 2017 (see figure VII.9). But while the level of spending is stable, its composition is changing. On the one hand, the public debt service jumped from 2.1% of GDP in 2016 to 2.3% in 2017, thus reaching its highest level since 2005. On the other hand, a reduction in primary current expenditure (from 15.5% of GDP in 2016 to 15.4% in 2017) is projected, along with a smaller contraction in capital expenditure.

Figure VII.9

Latin America and the Caribbean: breakdown of total central government expenditure, 2015-2017a b

(Percentages of GDP)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Simple averages. The figures for 2017 are official estimates taken from 2018 budget documents. The figures for Mexico correspond to the federal public sector, while those shown for Peru correspond to the general government. The data do not include figures for the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela or for the Plurinational State of Bolivia.

b The averages shown for the Caribbean do not include figures for Dominica.

Interest payments are on the rise in both northern and southern Latin America. This is attributable not only to the expansion of public debt in recent years but also to trends in the local currencies’ dollar exchange rates, in interest rates (especially on variable-rate instruments) and in domestic financial conditions. As a result, the average debt service for Central America, the Dominican Republic, Haiti and Mexico climbed from 2.0% of GDP in 2016 to 2.2% of GDP in 2017, while South America’s debt servicing obligations rose from 2.3% of GDP to 2.4%.

Average capital expenditure for the countries of Central America, the Dominican Republic, Haiti and Mexico remained at the level of 3.7% of GDP that had been reached the year before. This occurred despite a sizeable cut in this category of expenditure in Mexico because of the high basis of comparison afforded by the exceedingly large financial investments made in 2016 (transactions between the federal government and a number of State-owned enterprises). In the other countries in this group, substantial increases in capital expenditure are expected, although, in some of these countries, this category of expenditure includes large capital transfers made to State-owned companies that have been operating at a loss.

In South America, capital expenditure continues to decline in most of the countries, with the average falling to 3.6% of GDP in 2017 and thus slipping below the level registered in northern Latin America. This situation points to the importance of a prudent management of public investment, especially during times of fiscal consolidation, in order to avoid dampening the growth of aggregate demand in the short run or of potential GDP growth in the medium and long terms.

Primary current expenditure was down in both subregions, although the reduction was bigger in South America, where it dropped from 18.3% of GDP in 2016 to 18.1% in 2017. This is due in large part to declines relative to GDP owing to the slow rise of expenditure in Argentina and near-zero growth in Brazil. In the northern portion of Latin America, primary current expenditure is expected to slip from 13.0% of GDP in 2016 to 12.9% in 2017, with the decrease being led by reductions of around 1% of GDP in Honduras and Mexico.

In the Caribbean, the rise in total public spending from 29.6% of GDP to 30.0% of GDP was coupled with changes in its composition. A part of that shift was associated with the reconstruction work needed in some of the Caribbean countries in the aftermath of the passage of Hurricane Matthew in October 2016. Increases are projected in capital expenditure, which is expected to stand at 4.5% of GDP for 2017, owing to spending hikes in Saint Kitts and Nevis and in Saint Lucia. Primary current expenditure, on the other hand, is set to edge downward from 22.4% of GDP to 22.0% of GDP, mainly as a result of changes in spending levels in Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and Suriname.

B. Monetary and exchange-rate policies

Differences in monetary policies widen between the region’s south and north

Inflation continues to define the margins available to monetary authorities for stimulating aggregate domestic demand. In South America and the non-Spanish-speaking Caribbean, falling inflation rates are providing space for a more expansionary monetary policy, whereas in Central America and Mexico, the management of monetary policy is geared towards controlling increases in general prices.

The section below describes the policy actions taken throughout the region. The countries are classified by region and by their principal policy instruments, and the analysis shows how each group makes use of the manoeuvring room created by inflationary dynamics or deals with the reduced margins they generate.

Among the economies that use monetary policy rates as their main instrument, decreases in those rates during 2017 were posted by Brazil (625 basis points), Chile (100 basis points), Colombia (250 basis points), Paraguay (25 basis points) and Peru (75 basis points) (see figure VII.10).

These cuts in benchmark monetary policy interest rates occurred after a series of increases —in Brazil, since 2013; in Chile, since 2016; and in Colombia, since 2015— as part of efforts to reduce inflationary pressures, particularly in Brazil and Colombia, where inflation rates and forecasts had exceeded the official targets. After controlling those pressures, the central banks have been able to reduce their benchmark rates and, by so doing, to attempt to stimulate aggregate demand.

In September 2016, in a bid to reduce the prevailing inflation rate, the Central Bank of the Argentine Republic announced the adoption of a floating inflation targeting regime. This plan has established a track of descending inflation targets for 2017 (from 17% down to 12%) and 2018 (10%, with a tolerance of plus or minus 2 percentage points), with the ultimate objective of setting a 2019 target of 5% plus or minus 1.5 percentage points. Since current inflation is not in line with the target, the bank has increased the benchmark interest rate by 459 basis points.

Among the economies of Central America and Mexico, the dynamics are more diverse. In Costa Rica and Mexico, the monetary authorities decided to increase their benchmark interest rates by 275 and 125 basis points, respectively.

In the case of Mexico, the policymakers’ actions were in response to rising inflation, which has reached levels above the established target range, but they were also intended to temper the volatility that the Mexican peso has displayed since mid-2016. In Costa Rica’s case, expanding dollar deposits —a side effect of increased exchange rate volatility and uncertainty about the sustainability of public finances— were the reason behind the hike in the benchmark policy rate.

In both Guatemala and Honduras, the authorities left the benchmark rates unchanged, arguing that improvements in the international climate and domestic conditions were expected on schedule, including levels of inflation within the established target ranges. In the Dominican Republic, following the increase of 25 basis points in April 2017, the benchmark interest rate was revised downwards in July, on the grounds that inflation was within the range set by the monetary authority for the year.

Figure VII.10

Latin America (selected countries): monetary policy interest rates in countries where they are used as the main policy instrument, January 2013-October 2017

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

In the region’s economies that use monetary aggregates as their main policy instrument, the monetary bases reported a slowdown in their pace of growth (see figure VII.11). In the economies of Latin America, the growth rate of the monetary base has averaged 8.5% since the fourth quarter of 2016, which represents a drop of 7 percentage points from the average recorded between the first quarter of 2015 and the third quarter of 2016. The situation is similar in the economies of the non-Spanish-speaking Caribbean, with the monetary base growing an average of 4.0 percentage points less in the first two quarters of 2017 than in 2016. Despite this slowdown, in 2017 the monetary base reported average growth rates in excess of 10% in the Bahamas, Barbados, Dominica, Ecuador, Haiti, Jamaica and Suriname. In the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, the monetary base has grown at quarterly rates of above 200% in 2017 and, in the third quarter of the year (the latest period for which data are available), the monetary base expanded by 686%.

Figure VII.11

Latin America and the Caribbean (selected country groupings): evolution of the monetary base in countries where aggregates are the main monetary policy instrument, first quarter of 2010-third quarter of 2017

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

Lending rates are headed downwards, while domestic credit for the private sector is increasing in Latin America but not in the Caribbean countries

Nominal interest rates on loans have fallen in the different subregions identified for the analysis, with average drops of 20 basis points in the countries where interest rates are the main monetary policy instrument and in the economies of the non-Spanish-speaking Caribbean, and of 60 basis points in those economies that use aggregates as their primary monetary policy instrument (see figure VII.12). At the country level, particularly notable were the falls in average annual interest rates in Argentina (685 basis points), Brazil (275 basis points), Haiti (180 basis points), Jamaica (150 basis points), Paraguay (110 basis points) and Uruguay (170 basis points). While nominal interest rates fell in 24 of the region’s economies, there were increases in annual average interest rates in 7 countries: most notably, rates rose 120 basis points in Chile, 90 basis points in Suriname and 60 basis points in Honduras and Peru.[3] At the same time, even though there have been widespread drops in the lending rate, falling inflation across the region means that real-term interest rates have increased.

During 2017, with the exception of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, the economies of Latin America —both those that use policy interest rates as their main monetary policy instruments and those that use aggregates— posted slight increases in the private-sector credit growth rate. The contraction of domestic credit continued in the economies of the non-Spanish-speaking Caribbean, and data obtained for the second quarter of 2017 point to an annualized drop of 3.2%. Another country where the private-sector credit crunch worsened is the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, where the variable has now posted decreases for nine consecutive quarters (see figure VII.13).

Figure VII.12

Latin America and the Caribbean (selected country groupings): average lending rates, January 2010-April 2017

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

Figure VII.13

Latin America and the Caribbean (selected country groupings): evolution of domestic private-sector credit in real terms, first quarter of 2013-third quarter of 2017

(Percentages)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

The region’s currencies were more stable in 2017 than in 2016

Following significant fluctuations in a number of the region’s currencies in 2016, exchange rate variations were more moderate in 2017. Whereas in 2016 the currencies of Argentina, Haiti, Mexico and Suriname posted depreciations of more than 10% and the Brazilian real appreciated by 17.8%, the largest depreciation in 2017 was posted by Argentina (10.2%) and the greatest appreciation was that of the Mexican peso (-8.6%). Meanwhile, economies such as those of Brazil, Colombia, Honduras, Jamaica, the Plurinational State of Bolivia, Trinidad and Tobago and Uruguay reported only minor currency fluctuations (less than 1%) in 2017. The currencies of Chile, Guatemala, Mexico, Paraguay and Peru posted nominal appreciations against the dollar in 2017 (see table VII.1).

Table VII.1

Latin America and the Caribbean (19 countries): nominal depreciations and appreciations in dollar exchange rates, annualized variations, 2014-November 2017a

(Percentages)

Country

2014

2015

2016

As of 21 November 2017

Latin America

Argentina

29.8

52.8

22.8

10.2

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

0.0

-0.1

0.4

-0.3

Brazil

12.5

49.0

-17.8

0.2

Chile

15.4

16.8

-5.4

-5.3

Colombia

23.2

33.6

-5.4

0.2

Costa Rica

7.6

-0.4

3.0

2.2

Dominican Republic

4.0

2.5

2.5

3.1

Guatemala

-3.1

0.5

-1.4

-2.6

Haiti

8.1

20.0

18.7

-5.4

Honduras

3.8

6.4

5.0

0.4

Mexico

13.2

16.6

20.5

-8.6

Nicaragua

5.0

5.0

5.0

4.5

Paraguay

0.8

24.7

-0.8

-1.2

Peru

6.5

14.6

-1.7

-3.5

Uruguay

13.1

23.0

-2.5

0.6

The Caribbean

Belize

1.0

-0.8

0.0

0.2

Jamaica

7.9

4.9

7.4

-2.2

Suriname

3.8

16.8

85.4

0.6

Trinidad and Tobago

-0.6

0.8

5.0

-0.4

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of information from Bloomberg.

a Positive values indicate depreciations, while negative values show appreciations.

Factors such as expectations of recovery in the region’s economies, rebounding commodity prices and reduced uncertainties related to the normalization of monetary policy in developed countries (especially those of Europe) allowed the currencies of the region to enjoy greater stability.

Economies such as Argentina, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua saw their currencies depreciate against the dollar as a result of several factors —including rising inflation expectations, replacement of assets in favour of others denominated in foreign currencies and doubts about possible fiscal consolidation processes— that are behind exchange-rate dynamics.

In the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, the exchange rate mechanism changed in May 2017, when it was announced that sales of foreign currency would use the DICOM exchange rate (complementary exchange rate for imports, used to finance priority, non-essential imports), while maintaining the DIPRO protected rate (exchange rate for protected activities), used for public sector imports. If the DICOM exchange rate is used as the benchmark, the depreciation of the bolívar would total 396% between January and November 2017, but if the parallel exchange rate is used as the benchmark, total depreciation reached 2,468%.

After the depreciation seen in 2016, the real effective extraregional exchange rate appreciated in 2017

During 2017, the real effective extraregional exchange rate appreciated by 0.3% in real terms for the economies of Latin America and the Caribbean as a whole, contrasting with the depreciation recorded in 2016 (see figure VII.14). This dynamic in the region-wide real effective extraregional exchange rate was on account of the appreciation posted in the economies of South America (1.1%); while this result was lower than the 8.1% recorded in 2016, it offset the real-term depreciation posted by the economies of Central America, Mexico and the non-Spanish-speaking Caribbean.

Figure VII.14

Latin America and the Caribbean: real effective extraregional exchange-rate index, annual averages, by subregion, 2010-2017

(Base year: 2005=100)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

As with the nominal exchange rates, the variations in 2017 were lower than those recorded in 2016. Of the region’s currencies included in the sample basket, only the appreciating Mexican peso underwent a change of more than 10% in its real effective extraregional exchange rate. In addition, eight of the economies included in the sample posted appreciations of the real effective extraregional exchange rate in 2017 (one fewer than in 2016), while 11 economies reported depreciations in their real effective extraregional exchange rates.

International reserves continue to rise

In 2017, the international reserves of Latin America and the Caribbean grew by 4.2% compared to the total posted at the end of 2016 (see figure VII.15). That increase was equal to an accumulation of US$ 34.671 billion in reserves over the year, some US$ 15.041 billion more than the amount accumulated in 2016. Although reserves rose in 20 economies, the variation seen in the region as a whole during 2017 was essentially on account of the accumulation observed in Argentina (US$ 15.791 billion) and Brazil (US$ 16.040 billion).

Figure VII.15

Latin America and the Caribbean: international reserves, 2010-2017

(Billions of dollars and percentages of GDP)

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

In December 2015, the Central Bank of the Argentine Republic adopted a flexible exchange rate regime, consistent with its inflation targeting model and, at the same time, it introduced a policy of currency interventions, buying foreign exchange to strengthen the position of its reserves and to provide leeway for its management of exchange rate policy. In Brazil’s case, the performance of its reserve assets and the completion of the buy-backs (repos) made earlier to stabilize the exchange rate were the causes of the increased reserves.

Over the same period, the international reserves of 12 countries posted declines. The countries with the largest drops in their international reserves were Panama (20.0%), Barbados (19.8%), Belize (18.9%), Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (11.1%) and Antigua and Barbuda (10.0%).

With this, Trinidad and Tobago and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela have posted drops in their international reserve balances for three consecutive years, since 2015.

As regards the ratio of international reserves to GDP, the data recorded at the end of 2017 show a decline from 2016 levels, with 17 economies reporting a drop in the ratio. The most significant declines were posted in Belize (4.7 percentage points of GDP), Antigua and Barbuda (3.5 percentage points of GDP), Trinidad and Tobago (2.7 percentage points of GDP), Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (2.7 percentage points of GDP) and Panama (2.1 percentage points of GDP). At the same time, the ratio of international reserves to GDP rose in 15 countries, including Guatemala (2.5 percentage points of GDP), Jamaica (2.1 percentage points of GDP), Honduras (2.0 percentage points of GDP), Argentina (1.9 percentage points of GDP) and Paraguay (1.6 percentage points of GDP).

[1] For a further analysis of debt patterns, see box II.1 in Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Economic Survey of Latin America and the Caribbean 2016: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the challenges of financing for development (LC/G.2684-P), Santiago, 2016.

[2] For further information on regularization programmes, see box I.1 in Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Economic Survey of Latin America and the Caribbean 2017 (LC/PUB.2017/17-P), Santiago, 2017.

[3] Nevertheless, despite the increase in average lending rates, the monthly values of those rates as of September or October 2017 in Chile, Peru and Suriname show a decline from the levels posted at the start of the year.

Chapter VIII

Outlook and challenges for 2018

Monetary factors and the situation in the production sector will continue to provide a supportive environment for the region’s economies in 2018. The global economy is expected to continue to grow at rates close to those recorded in 2017, and emerging economies are poised to out-perform developed ones. On the monetary front, liquidity will continue to expand, and international interest rates will remain low. This opens up a promising opportunity for the Latin American and Caribbean countries to expand their economic policy space in a way that will buoy the expansionary phase of the business cycle.

Nevertheless, the international situation poses certain challenges for the consolidation of global growth over the medium term.

The ramifications of such a prolonged period of slow growth are still being felt globally in the areas of investment and capital stock, labour markets and productivity. Potential GDP growth in many countries is now below the levels seen in the years leading up to the global financial crisis; this poses a challenge whose scope goes beyond that of the cyclical recovery of economic activity that is expected for 2017 and 2018.

The situation is much the same in terms of international trade. Growth rates for trade volumes have been rebounding since late 2016, but they are starting off from such a low point that volumes are still below their pre-crisis levels. The slowdown in trade was a result not only of cyclical factors —such as the slump in trade-intensive activity (particularly investment), which is slated to pick up this year and the next— but also of more structural factors whose longer-term trends are difficult to predict.[1] The uncertainty surrounding the future trend in trade volumes also has to do with the growing protectionism being observed in some countries. The mounting support for anti-globalization political parties in some European countries and the vote in favour of Brexit in the United Kingdom in 2016 are just two examples. Meanwhile, the rhetoric used by the United States in the latest rounds of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) talks suggests that the dissolution of that treaty is a less remote possibility than it used to be, especially in view of that country’s withdrawal from the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP).

Over the course of the year, the financial markets have become less volatile and, in general, asset prices have risen in line with rising profit expectations and the improved economic outlook. However, a prolonged period of low volatility, as has been occurring recently, may encourage further risk-taking and make financial systems more fragile.[2] Moreover, the fact that the price-to-earnings ratios in the United States and the eurozone are currently higher than the historical averages points to a possible overvaluation which will probably give way to an adjustment in the future.

One of the main unanswered questions in financial markets has to do with the potential impact over the medium term of the reversal of the quantitative easing policies that is already under way or has been announced by the Federal Reserve of the United States, the European Central Bank and the Bank of Japan. Although liquidity is expected to remain high in the immediate future, there are no prior experiences from which to draw lessons about the pass-through mechanisms and potential ramifications that may arise when a substantial reduction actually begins to be seen on the balance sheets of these monetary authorities. Meanwhile, sharper increases in interest rates in developed economies will have a negative wealth effect, since this will drive down bond prices and could dampen activity on international bond markets. In addition, rising interest rates will make the securities of emerging economies less profitable, and this may, in turn, reduce the flow of financing to those economies, as well as making it difficult for monetary policymakers in the countries of the region to know which way to turn, especially if this occurs at a time when their countries are in the downswing of the business cycle. The consequences of this state of affairs will depend, in part, on the composition of financial flows and on the relative weight of the components of those flows that are most sensitive to changes in international interest rates.

Mounting debt levels —an area in which China is a stand-out example, with a total debt equivalent 260% of GDP— in the private sector, in particular, at a time of low inflation are reawakening fears of the appearance of a debt-deflation cycle. China’s situation is also compounded by the vulnerability of both its parallel financial system (the so-called “shadow” financial system) and its formal financial sector, which is carrying a large percentage of poor-quality debt. The Chinese authorities have been taking steps to eliminate these risks and to curb the country’s growing debt and are expected to continue to do so in the future. These measures are at the root of projections of a cooling of that economy in 2018.

These financial risks are coupled with others that are associated with developed countries’ domestic policies. Examples include the move being made to reduce financial regulation and specifically to roll back the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act in the United States, which could make the financial system more vulnerable in the medium term. In addition, the tax reform bill now moving through the legislature in the United States could ease the corporate tax burden and bolster capital flows to that country. In addition to the possible redistributive effects of that bill, the cuts in corporate tax rates and the repatriation of capital may not only have a direct effect on capital flows, but may also change the rules of the game in international taxation. This could trigger other reductions in corporate taxes (in what is known as a “race to the bottom”) that could have an impact on the tax systems of other countries, including those of the region.

In all probability, stronger external demand will spur economic activity in Latin America and the Caribbean, while domestic demand will play an important role in accelerating growth, although the pace of growth will differ from one component of the economy to the next. Thanks to the upswing in gross fixed capital formation, investment will make a greater contribution to the economy than before. Private consumption continues to drive domestic demand. The governments of the region are expected to continue to pursue their fiscal consolidation efforts during 2018, and it is therefore unlikely that fiscal policy will make any significant contribution to GDP growth.

Estimates put the GDP growth rate for Latin America and the Caribbean at 2.2% for 2018, which is substantially higher than the rate for 2017 (1.3%) (see table VIII.1). More robust economic growth in Brazil (2.0%) will be one of the factors behind this upturn. In addition, economic activity is expected to strengthen in a number of countries that have been growing at moderate rates up to now, including Chile (2.8%), Colombia (2.6%) and Peru (3.5%). Panama will be the Latin American country with the highest growth rate (5.5%), followed by the Dominican Republic (5.1%) and Nicaragua (5.0%). With the exception of Cuba (1.0%), Ecuador (1.3%) and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (-5.5%), all the other Latin American economies will expand by between 2% and 4%.

At the subregional level, South America is expected to turn in a stronger showing in 2018 (2.0% on average, up from 0.8% in 2017). The economies of Central America, Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Haiti are projected to attain a growth rate of 3.6%, thus outdoing their 2017 rate of 3.3%. The average growth rate for the English- and Dutch-speaking Caribbean is projected at 1.5% for 2018, fostered, among other things, by expenditure on reconstruction in the aftermath of Hurricane Irma and Hurricane María in some countries of the subregion.

Table VIII.1

Latin America and the Caribbean: annual growth in gross domestic product (GDP), 2012-2018

(Percentages, based on dollars at constant 2010 prices)

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017a

2018b

Argentina

-1.0

2.4

-2.5

2.6

-2.2

2.9

3.0

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

5.1

6.8

5.5

4.9

4.3

3.9

4.0

Brazil

1.9

3.0

0.5

-3.5

-3.5

0.9

2.0

Chile

5.5

4.0

1.9

2.3

1.6

1.5

2.8

Colombia

4.0

4.9

4.4

3.1

2.0

1.8

2.6

Costa Rica

4.8

2.3

3.5

3.6

4.5

3.9

4.1

Cuba

3.0

2.8

1.0

4.3

-0.9

0.5

1.0

Dominican Republic

2.8

4.7

7.6

7.0

6.6

4.9

5.1

Ecuador

5.6

4.9

4.0

0.2

-1.5

1.0

1.3

El Salvador

1.9

1.8

1.4

2.3

2.4

2.4

2.5

Guatemala

3.0

3.7

4.2

4.1

3.1

3.2

3.5

Haiti

2.9

4.2

2.8

1.2

1.4

1.3

2.2

Honduras

4.1

2.8

3.1

3.6

3.6

3.9

3.9

Mexico

3.6

1.4

2.8

3.3

2.9

2.2

2.4

Nicaragua

6.5

4.9

4.8

4.9

4.7

4.9

5.0

Panama

9.2

6.6

6.1

5.8

4.9

5.3

5.5

Paraguay

-1.2

14.0

4.7

3.0

4.0

4.0

4.0

Peru

6.1

5.9

2.4

3.3

4.0

2.5

3.5

Uruguay

3.5

4.6

3.2

0.4

1.5

3.0

3.2

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

5.6

1.3

-3.9

-5.7

-9.7

-9.5

-5.5

Subtotal for Latin America

2.8

2.9

1.2

-0.2

-0.8

1.3

2.2

Antigua and Barbuda

3.5

-0.1

5.1

4.1

5.3

4.5

5.8

Bahamas

3.1

-0.6

-1.2

-3.1

0.2

1.2

2.0

Barbados

0.3

0.0

0.0

0.9

2.0

1.5

1.5

Belize

3.7

0.7

4.1

2.9

-0.5

2.5

2.4

Dominica

-1.1

-0.6

4.4

-2.5

2.6

-8.3

7.6

Grenada

-1.2

2.4

7.3

6.4

3.7

3.5

2.5

Guyana

4.8

5.2

3.8

3.2

3.3

2.9

3.5

Jamaica

-0.6

0.5

0.7

1.0

1.4

1.2

1.3

Saint Kitts and Nevis

-0.6

6.2

6.0

4.0

2.2

2.1

3.8

Saint Lucia

0.2

3.4

-0.2

2.0

1.7

2.8

3.6

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

1.4

1.8

1.0

1.8

1.3

0.8

1.5

Suriname

2.7

2.9

0.3

-2.6

-5.1

-0.7

0.7

Trinidad and Tobago

1.3

1.0

-0.3

1.5

-6.0

-2.3

0.5

Subtotal for the Caribbean

1.4

1.0

0.4

0.6

-1.6

0.1

1.5

Latin America and the Caribbean

2.8

2.9

1.2

-0.2

-0.8

1.3

2.2

South America (10 countries)

2.5

3.3

0.5

-1.6

-2.3

0.8

2.0

Central America, Cuba, Dominican Republic and Haiti (9 countries)

4.0

3.7

4.0

4.7

3.5

3.3

3.6

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Estimates.

b Projections.

[1] See Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), Preliminary Overview of the Economies of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2016 (LC/G.2698-P), Santiago, 2016.

[2] See Office of Financial Research (OFR), “The volatility paradox: tranquil markets may harbor hidden risks”, Markets Monitor, second quarter, 2017.

Statistical annex

Table A1.1

Latin America and the Caribbean: main economic indicators

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017a

Annual growth rates

Gross domestic productb

4.0

-1.8

6.2

4.4

2.8

2.9

1.2

-0.2

-0.8

1.3

Per capita gross domestic productb

2.7

-3.0

4.9

3.2

1.6

1.7

0.1

-1.3

-1.9

0.3

Consumer pricesc

7.0

3.5

5.4

5.8

4.9

5.0

6.3

7.9

7.3

5.3

Percentages

Urban open unemployment

7.8

9.1

8.4

7.7

7.3

7.1

6.9

7.3

8.9

9.4

Total gross external debt/GDPd e

30.0

31.2

28.7

27.4

30.6

32.3

34.9

37.7

39.4

38.6

Total gross external debt/exports

of goods and services

79.5

111.7

108.1

98.4

106.8

117.4

133.7

154.2

170.9

161.7

Millions of dollars

Balance of paymentse

Current account balance

-38 484

-32 050

-96 994

-115 143

-133 867

-162 508

-184 107

-174 943

-91 779

...

Exports of goods f.o.b.

903 604

703 807

892 283

1 107 548

1 128 259

1 118 963

1 087 410

926 951

865 465

...

Imports of goods f.o.b.

863 741

652 643

847 567

1 041 388

1 087 430

1 116 580

1 103 753

984 239

872 283

...

Services trade balance

-23 044

-25 431

-39 928

-54 828

-57 880

-62 884

-62 859

-55 610

-35 634

...

Income balance

-110 908

-103 927

-151 489

-173 524

-161 585

-147 311

-155 962

-131 808

-124 888

...

Net current transfers

67 209

57 997

61 031

63 159

63 636

64 253

67 770

69 763

75 302

...

Capital and financial balancef

79 739

79 050

181 414

219 673

190 721

178 266

221 475

147 744

116 669

...

Net foreign direct investment

105 870

73 348

114 189

147 195

149 794

147 413

142 516

135 781

130 094

...

Other capital movements

-26 131

5 702

67 225

72 478

40 927

30 853

78 960

11 935

-13 428

...

Overall balance

41 255

46 999

82 420

104 529

56 854

15 757

37 369

-27 198

26 459

...

Variation in reserve assetsg

-41 995

-50 801

-87 095

-104 551

-59 154

-14 568

-35 171

26 522

-26 258

...

Other financing

741

3 801

4 675

1 611

1 081

422

445

681

-201

...

Net transfer of resources

-31 135

-22 083

33 646

46 247

28 110

28 765

63 749

15 833

-8 420

...

International reserves

511 960

566 708

657 005

773 789

835 902

830 204

857 634

811 913

831 542

866 213

Percentages of GDP

Fiscal sectorh

Overall balance

-0.4

-2.7

-1.9

-1.4

-1.9

-2.6

-2.8

-2.9

-3.1

-3.1

Primary balance

1.3

-0.9

-0.3

0.3

-0.2

-0.9

-1.0

-0.9

-1.0

-0.8

Total revenue

18.4

17.3

18.0

18.2

18.4

18.4

18.2

18.2

18.3

18.2

Tax revenue

14.6

14.0

14.4

14.8

15.2

15.2

15.3

15.6

15.7

15.6

Total expenditure

18.8

20.0

19.9

19.6

20.4

20.9

21.0

21.1

21.3

21.3

Capital expenditure

3.7

3.8

4.0

3.8

4.2

4.2

4.0

3.7

3.7

3.7

Central government public debti

28.5

30.7

29.4

28.8

30.0

31.8

33.0

35.6

38.0

38.3

Public debt of the non-financial public sectori

30.6

33.2

32.4

31.0

32.2

34.1

35.5

38.5

41.3

41.3

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Preliminary figures.

b Based on official figures expressed in 2010 dollars.

c December - December variation. Weighted average, does not include the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.

d Estimates based on figures denominated in dollars at current prices.

e Does not include the Caribbean, Cuba and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.

f Includes errors and omissions.

g A minus sign (-) indicates an increase in reserve assets.

h Coverage corresponds to the central government. Simple averages for 17 countries. Does not include the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Cuba or the Plurinational State of Bolivia.

i Simple averages for 19 countries. Does not include Cuba.

Table A1.2

Latin America and the Caribbean: annual growth rates in gross domestic product

(Constant prices)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017 a

Latin America and the Caribbeanb

4.0

-1.8

6.2

4.4

2.8

2.9

1.2

-0.2

-0.8

1.3

Latin America

4.0

-1.8

6.3

4.5

2.8

2.9

1.2

-0.2

-0.8

1.3

Argentina

4.1

-5.9

10.1

6.0

-1.0

2.4

-2.5

2.6

-2.2

2.9

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

6.1

3.4

4.1

5.2

5.1

6.8

5.5

4.9

4.3

3.9

Brazil

5.1

-0.1

7.5

4.0

1.9

3.0

0.5

-3.5

-3.5

0.9

Chile

3.7

-1.0

5.8

5.8

5.5

4.0

1.9

2.3

1.6

1.5

Colombia

3.5

1.7

4.0

6.6

4.0

4.9

4.4

3.1

2.0

1.8

Costa Rica

2.7

-1.0

5.0

4.5

4.8

2.3

3.5

3.6

4.5

3.9

Cuba

4.1

1.5

2.4

2.8

3.0

2.8

1.0

4.3

-0.9

0.5

Dominican Republic

3.2

0.9

8.3

3.1

2.8

4.7

7.6

7.0

6.6

4.9

Ecuador

6.4

0.6

3.5

7.9

5.6

4.9

4.0

0.2

-1.5

1.0

El Salvador

1.3

-3.1

1.4

2.2

1.9

1.8

1.4

2.3

2.4

2.4

Guatemala

3.3

0.5

2.9

4.2

3.0

3.7

4.2

4.1

3.1

3.2

Haiti

0.8

3.1

-5.5

5.5

2.9

4.2

2.8

1.2

1.4

1.3

Honduras

4.2

-2.4

3.7

3.8

4.1

2.8

3.1

3.6

3.6

3.9

Mexico

1.1

-5.3

5.1

3.7

3.6

1.4

2.8

3.3

2.9

2.2

Nicaragua

3.4

-3.3

4.4

6.3

6.5

4.9

4.8

4.9

4.7

4.9

Panama

8.6

1.6

5.8

11.8

9.2

6.6

6.1

5.8

4.9

5.3

Paraguay

6.4

-4.0

13.1

4.3

-1.2

14.0

4.7

3.0

4.0

4.0

Peru

9.1

1.1

8.3

6.3

6.1

5.9

2.4

3.3

4.0

2.5

Uruguay

7.2

4.2

7.8

5.2

3.5

4.6

3.2

0.4

1.5

3.0

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

5.3

-3.2

-1.5

4.2

5.6

1.3

-3.9

-5.7

...

...

The Caribbean

1.2

-3.5

1.4

1.0

1.4

1.0

0.4

0.6

-1.6

0.1

Antigua and Barbuda

0.0

-12.1

-7.2

-2.1

3.5

-0.1

5.1

4.1

5.3

4.5

Bahamas

-2.3

-4.2

1.5

0.6

3.1

-0.6

-1.2

-3.1

0.2

1.2

Barbados

0.1

-4.0

0.3

0.7

0.3

0.0

0.0

0.9

2.0

1.5

Belize

3.2

0.8

3.3

2.1

3.7

0.7

4.1

2.9

-0.5

2.5

Dominica

7.1

-1.2

0.7

-0.2

-1.1

-0.6

4.4

-2.5

2.6

-8.3

Grenada

1.0

-6.6

-0.4

0.7

-1.2

2.4

7.3

6.4

3.7

3.5

Guyana

2.0

3.3

4.4

5.4

4.8

5.2

3.8

3.2

3.3

2.9

Jamaica

-0.8

-4.3

-1.5

1.7

-0.6

0.5

0.7

1.0

1.4

1.2

Saint Kitts and Nevis

6.3

-3.0

-2.2

2.4

-0.6

6.2

6.0

4.0

2.2

2.1

Saint Lucia

5.7

1.2

-1.6

0.6

0.2

3.4

-0.2

2.0

1.7

2.8

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

1.6

-2.1

-3.4

-0.4

1.4

1.8

1.0

1.8

1.3

0.8

Suriname

4.1

3.0

5.2

5.3

2.7

2.9

0.3

-2.6

-5.1

-0.7

Trinidad and Tobago

3.4

-4.4

3.3

-0.3

1.3

1.0

-0.3

1.5

-6.0

-2.3

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Preliminary figures.

b Based on official figures expressed in dollars at constant 2010 prices.

Table A1.3

Latin America and the Caribbean: per capita gross domestic product

(Annual growth rates)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017a

Latin America and the Caribbeanb

2.7

-3.0

4.9

3.2

1.6

1.7

0.1

-1.3

-1.9

0.3

Latin America

2.7

-3.0

4.9

3.2

1.6

1.7

0.1

-1.3

-1.9

0.3

Argentina

3.0

-6.9

9.0

4.9

-2.1

1.3

-3.5

1.6

-3.2

2.0

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

4.3

1.6

2.4

3.5

3.4

5.1

3.8

3.2

2.7

2.4

Brazil

3.9

-1.2

6.4

2.9

0.9

2.0

-0.4

-4.4

-4.3

0.1

Chile

2.5

-2.1

4.6

4.7

4.3

2.9

0.8

1.2

0.5

0.5

Colombia

2.3

0.5

2.8

5.5

3.0

3.8

3.4

2.1

1.1

1.0

Costa Rica

1.3

-2.3

3.6

3.2

3.6

1.1

2.4

2.5

3.5

2.9

Cuba

4.1

1.4

2.3

2.7

2.8

2.6

0.9

4.2

0.0

0.5

Dominican Republic

1.8

-0.4

6.9

1.8

1.5

3.5

6.3

5.8

5.4

3.8

Ecuador

4.6

-1.1

1.8

6.2

4.0

3.3

2.4

-1.3

-2.9

-0.5

El Salvador

0.9

-3.5

1.0

1.8

1.5

1.4

1.0

1.9

1.9

2.0

Guatemala

1.0

-1.6

0.7

2.0

0.8

1.6

2.1

2.1

1.1

1.3

Haiti

-0.7

1.5

-6.9

4.0

1.4

2.8

1.4

-0.1

0.1

0.0

Honduras

2.4

-4.1

2.1

2.2

2.6

1.3

1.6

2.2

2.2

2.6

Mexico

-0.5

-6.8

3.5

2.2

2.2

0.0

1.5

1.9

1.6

0.9

Nicaragua

2.1

-4.5

3.1

5.0

5.2

3.7

3.6

3.7

3.6

3.8

Panama

6.7

-0.1

4.0

9.9

7.4

4.9

4.4

4.1

3.2

3.7

Paraguay

4.9

-5.2

11.6

2.9

-2.6

12.5

3.3

1.6

2.8

2.8

Peru

7.8

-0.1

7.0

4.9

4.7

4.4

1.0

1.9

2.7

1.3

Uruguay

6.8

3.9

7.5

4.8

3.2

4.3

2.9

0.0

1.1

2.6

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

3.6

-4.7

-2.9

2.7

4.2

0.0

-5.1

-6.9

...

...

The Caribbean

0.5

-4.2

0.7

0.4

0.8

0.4

-0.2

0.0

-2.2

-0.4

Antigua and Barbuda

-1.1

-13.1

-8.2

-3.1

2.4

-1.1

4.0

3.0

4.3

3.5

Bahamas

-4.1

-5.8

-0.2

-1.0

1.5

-2.0

-2.6

-4.3

-1.0

0.1

Barbados

-0.3

-4.4

-0.1

0.3

-0.1

-0.3

-0.3

0.6

1.7

1.2

Belize

0.6

-1.7

0.9

-0.3

1.4

-1.5

1.9

0.7

-2.6

0.4

Dominica

7.0

-1.3

0.4

-0.6

-1.5

-1.0

3.9

-3.0

2.2

-8.7

Grenada

0.6

-7.0

-0.8

0.3

-1.6

1.8

6.9

6.0

3.2

3.0

Guyana

1.6

3.0

4.0

5.1

4.5

4.9

3.5

2.7

2.8

2.4

Jamaica

-1.3

-4.8

-1.9

1.3

-1.0

0.1

0.3

0.6

1.0

0.8

Saint Kitts and Nevis

5.0

-4.2

-3.4

1.2

-1.8

4.9

4.7

2.8

1.1

1.0

Saint Lucia

4.1

-0.2

-2.8

-0.4

-0.7

2.6

-0.9

1.2

0.9

2.1

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

1.5

-2.2

-3.4

-0.4

1.4

1.8

1.0

1.7

1.1

0.6

Suriname

3.0

1.8

4.0

4.2

1.7

2.0

-0.6

-3.4

-6.0

-1.5

Trinidad and Tobago

2.9

-4.8

2.8

-0.8

0.8

0.5

-0.7

1.1

-6.3

-2.6

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Preliminary figures.

b Based on official figures expressed in dollars at constant 2010 prices.

Table A1.4

Latin America and the Caribbean: gross fixed capital formationa

(Percentages of GDP)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

Latin America and the Caribbean

20.3

19.1

20.2

21.1

21.3

21.3

20.7

19.5

18.7

17.9

Argentina

17.6

14.5

16.6

18.4

17.3

17.3

16.5

16.7

16.2

16.7

Bahamas

28.1

26.4

26.2

27.6

30.1

27.0

28.8

23.8

25.1

...

Belize

24.9

20.1

15.3

14.9

15.7

18.3

20.2

23.8

25.1

...

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

16.1

16.1

16.6

19.5

19.0

19.9

20.7

20.7

20.6

20.3

Brazil

19.1

18.7

20.5

21.1

20.9

21.4

20.4

18.2

16.9

16.6

Chile

23.3

20.7

21.9

23.7

25.1

24.7

23.1

22.4

21.9

21.7

Colombia

22.3

21.7

21.9

24.4

24.6

25.0

26.3

26.0

24.6

24.6

Costa Rica

22.1

19.9

20.0

20.8

21.4

20.8

20.8

20.6

19.8

19.5

Dominican Republic

27.6

23.3

25.1

23.7

23.0

22.4

23.3

26.3

27.4

27.2

Ecuador

24.1

23.1

24.6

26.1

27.3

28.7

28.7

27.0

25.2

25.9

El Salvador

15.8

13.2

13.3

14.8

14.3

15.4

14.2

15.0

14.6

14.5

Guatemala

18.0

15.6

14.8

15.2

15.3

15.0

15.0

15.3

15.2

16.3

Haiti

25.6

25.7

25.4

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

Honduras

33.3

22.1

21.6

24.3

24.2

23.1

22.5

24.4

21.8

21.7

Mexico

23.2

21.7

21.6

22.5

22.7

21.7

21.7

22.1

21.7

21.5

Nicaragua

26.4

20.6

21.2

24.3

27.5

27.6

27.3

31.2

31.2

31.3

Panama

29.5

28.2

30.2

33.7

37.3

42.2

43.7

...

...

...

Paraguay

15.2

14.7

15.9

16.9

15.8

15.5

16.1

16.0

16.5

16.9

Peru

21.9

20.9

23.5

24.3

26.3

26.2

25.1

22.7

21.0

20.3

Uruguay

19.6

17.7

19.1

19.4

22.1

22.0

21.8

19.7

19.6

19.3

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

20.7

19.6

18.7

18.7

21.9

19.6

17.0

17.5

19.3

...

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Based on official figures expressed in dollars at constant 2010 prices.

b Preliminary figures.

Table A1.5

Latin America and the Caribbean: balance of payments

(Millions of dollars)

Exports

of goods f.o.b.

Exports

of services

Imports

of goods f.o.b.

Imports

of services

2015

2016

2017a

2015

2016

2017a

2015

2016

2017a

2015

2016

2017a

Latin America and the Caribbean

926 951

865 465

...

153 765

152 283

...

984 239

872 282

...

209 375

187 918

...

Latin America

909 789

852 984

948 433

141 156

142 991

152 640

960 160

853 000

928 956

200 436

180 811

195 372

Argentina

56 813

57 784

58 922

13 219

12 812

14 134

57 176

53 243

63 610

19 005

20 956

23 680

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

8 684

7 000

7 840

1 243

1 245

1 307

9 004

7 888

8 573

2 835

2 841

2 898

Brazil

190 092

184 453

215 810

33 778

33 300

34 632

172 422

139 416

150 569

70 696

63 747

68 209

Chile

62 183

60 597

67 599

9 636

9 500

10 070

58 718

55 341

60 875

13 054

12 638

13 270

Colombia

38 263

33 382

37 967

7 424

8 012

8 334

52 051

43 239

46 266

12 193

11 171

11 898

Costa Rica

9 432

10 166

10 836

7 693

8 648

9 080

14 059

14 587

15 317

3 085

3 533

4 035

Dominican Republic

9 442

9 860

10 346

7 542

8 305

8 886

16 907

17 484

18 183

3 174

3 344

3 503

Ecuador

19 049

17 425

19 888

2 391

2 140

2 172

20 699

15 858

19 236

3 197

3 194

3 276

El Salvador

4 381

4 186

4 463

2 337

2 477

2 570

9 384

8 823

9 352

1 532

1 721

1 787

Guatemala

10 824

10 581

11 114

2 823

2 784

2 840

16 381

15 767

16 871

3 162

3 026

3 193

Haiti

1 024

995

988

724

607

613

3 449

3 183

3 693

1 042

1 013

1 044

Honduras

8 188

7 841

8 317

1 104

1 181

1 217

11 097

10 559

11 142

1 794

1 791

1 827

Mexico

380 976

374 296

409 734

22 903

24 597

26 566

395 573

387 368

417 825

32 657

33 549

37 910

Nicaragua

3 859

3 772

4 111

1 254

1 394

1 506

6 405

6 384

6 518

1 021

1 148

1 056

Panama

12 765

11 705

12 641

14 337

14 613

16 065

22 487

20 513

22 564

4 758

4 423

4 738

Paraguay

10 898

11 155

11 754

860

883

895

10 317

9 789

11 649

1 104

1 104

1 181

Peru

34 414

37 020

44 424

6 236

6 312

7 070

37 331

35 132

38 118

8 276

8 287

8 508

Uruguay

11 145

10 766

11 680

4 488

4 181

4 683

9 801

8 427

8 595

4 077

3 325

3 358

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

37 357

...

...

1 163

...

...

36 901

...

...

13 774

...

...

The Caribbean

17 162

12 481

...

12 609

9 292

...

24 079

19 281

...

8 939

7 107

...

Antigua and Barbuda

66

78

...

968

955

...

460

503

...

388

424

...

Bahamas

527

...

...

2 737

...

...

2 953

...

...

1 271

…

...

Barbados

483

517

...

1 471

1 565

...

1 537

1 540

...

494

495

...

Belize

538

...

...

496

...

...

961

...

...

221

...

...

Dominica

34

26

...

234

255

...

188

188

...

126

126

...

Grenada

41

38

...

537

555

...

327

315

...

238

238

...

Guyana

1 170

...

...

143

...

...

1 475

...

...

423

...

...

Jamaica

1 255

1 195

1 222

3 059

3 218

2 900

4 449

4 169

4 200

2 161

2 167

2 200

Saint Kitts and Nevis

49

51

...

482

467

...

302

308

...

216

206

...

Saint Lucia

187

166

...

853

811

...

502

576

...

330

320

...

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

46

47

...

233

239

...

295

295

...

117

119

...

Suriname

1 652

2 149

...

204

203

...

2 028

1 966

...

674

803

...

Trinidad and Tobago

11 114

8 214

...

1 192

1 025

...

8 602

9 422

...

2 277

2 210

...

Goods and services

balance

Income balance

Current transfers

balance

Current account

balance

2015

2016

2017a

2015

2016

2017a

2015

2016

2017a

2015

2016

2017a

Latin America and the Caribbean

-112 897

-42 452

...

-131 808

-124 888

...

69 763

75 302

...

-174 943

-91 777

...

Latin America

-109 651

-37 837

-23 255

-129 861

-123 367

-141 103

66 908

72 772

77 739

-172 604

-88 430

-86 619

Argentina

-6 148

-3 603

-14 235

-12 105

-12 105

-13 710

1 083

1 176

1 092

-17 170

-14 533

-26 853

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

-1 911

-2 485

-2 324

-1 127

-616

-900

1 171

1 194

1 253

-1 868

-1 907

-1 971

Brazil

-19 249

14 590

31 664

-42 910

-41 080

-46 000

2 724

2 960

2 398

-59 434

-23 530

-11 938

Chile

47

2 119

3 524

-6 576

-7 117

-10 249

1 858

1 424

2 300

-4 670

-3 574

-4 425

Colombia

-18 557

-13 016

-11 862

-5 650

-5 113

-6 400

5 430

5 823

6 118

-18 777

-12 305

-12 144

Costa Rica

-19

694

564

-2 380

-2 864

-3 150

457

473

480

-1 942

-1 698

-2 106

Dominican Republic

-3 097

-2 663

-2 454

-2 936

-3 364

-3 900

4 753

5 049

5 454

-1 280

-978

-901

Ecuador

-2 455

513

-453

-1 731

-1 856

-2 290

2 078

2 780

2 836

-2 108

1 438

92

El Salvador

-4 198

-3 881

-4 107

-1 091

-1 225

-1 287

4 363

4 576

5 066

-926

-531

-328

Guatemala

-5 896

-5 428

-6 110

-1 399

-1 507

-1 550

7 199

7 959

8 914

-96

1 023

1 254

Haiti

-2 743

-2 595

-3 136

41

48

50

2 437

2 464

2 830

-266

-83

-256

Honduras

-3 598

-3 328

-3 434

-1 380

-1 491

-1 614

3 835

4 009

4 473

-1 144

-810

-575

Mexico

-24 351

-22 025

-19 435

-29 268

-27 152

-30 000

24 131

26 527

28 192

-29 489

-22 648

-21 243

Nicaragua

-2 313

-2 366

-1 957

-345

-354

-394

1 515

1 586

1 665

-1 144

-1 133

-685

Panama

-143

1 382

1 404

-4 025

-4 385

-4 245

-106

-157

-116

-4 274

-3 160

-2 958

Paraguay

337

1 146

-181

-1 311

-1 506

-1 490

672

775

869

-301

415

-802

Peru

-4 956

-86

4 867

-7 544

-9 184

-11 021

3 331

3 967

3 712

-9 169

-5 303

-2 441

Uruguay

1 755

3 195

4 410

-2 327

-2 494

-2 953

176

187

204

-395

888

1 661

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

-12 155

...

...

-5 798

...

...

-197

...

...

-18 150

...

...

The Caribbean

-3 246

-4 614

...

-1 947

-1 521

...

2 854

2 530

...

-2 340

-3 347

...

Antigua and Barbuda

185

106

...

-81

-98

...

-11

-7

...

93

2

...

Bahamas

-960

...

...

-403

...

...

-46

...

...

-1 409

...

...

Barbados

-78

47

...

-213

-221

...

2

-33

...

-289

-207

...

Belize

-149

...

...

-95

...

...

70

...

...

-175

...

...

Dominica

-47

-33

...

-19

-20

...

55

57

...

-10

5

...

Grenada

13

40

...

-58

-61

...

7

-12

...

-38

-34

...

Guyana

-585

...

...

25

...

...

417

0

...

-144

0

...

Jamaica

-2 296

-1 922

-2 278

-440

-570

-280

2 306

2 389

2 200

-430

-103

-358

Saint Kitts and Nevis

13

4

...

-81

-81

...

-17

-26

...

-85

-102

...

Saint Lucia

208

81

...

-111

-118

...

15

6

...

112

-31

...

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

-132

-127

...

-14

-25

...

33

30

...

-113

-122

...

Suriname

-846

-417

...

-27

-69

...

65

71

...

-808

-157

...

Trinidad and Tobago

1 428

-2 392

...

-429

-258

...

-42

53

...

957

-2 598

...

Capital and

financial balanceb

Overall balance

Reserve assets

(variation)c

Other financing

2015

2016

2017a

2015

2016

2017a

2015

2016

2017a

2015

2016

2017a

Latin America and the Caribbean

147 716

116 666

...

-27 225

26 459

...

26 559

-26 245

...

681

-201

...

Latin America

146 730

114 817

115 569

-25 872

26 388

28 951

25 249

-26 174

-28 952

638

-201

...

Argentina

12 237

28 844

39 965

-4 933

14 311

13 112

4 933

-14 311

-13 112

0

0

...

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

248

-1 138

1 961

-1 620

-3 046

-9

1 620

3 046

9

0

0

...

Brazil

61 003

32 767

27 105

1 569

9 237

15 167

-1 569

-9 237

-15 167

0

0

...

Chile

4 881

5 379

1 802

211

1 805

-2 623

-211

-1 805

2 623

0

0

...

Colombia

19 192

12 470

12 986

415

165

842

-415

-165

-842

0

0

...

Costa Rica

2 586

1 463

1 356

644

-235

-750

-644

235

750

0

0

...

Dominican Republic

2 050

1 870

1 029

770

892

129

-407

-780

-129

-363

-112

...

Ecuador

620

-231

-1 626

-1 489

1 207

-1 533

1 453

-1 763

1 533

36

556

...

El Salvador

1 039

983

850

113

453

523

-113

-453

-523

0

0

...

Guatemala

572

368

853

475

1 392

2 107

-475

-1 392

-2 107

0

0

...

Haiti

81

164

321

-185

81

65

141

-142

-65

49

61

...

Honduras

1 437

864

1 172

293

53

597

-293

-53

-597

10

13

...

Mexico

13 821

22 515

17 704

-15 667

-136

-3 539

15 667

136

3 539

0

0

...

Nicaragua

1 341

1 077

1 077

197

-57

-57

-197

57

-332

0

0

...

Panama

3 290

4 487

2 057

-984

1 327

-901

78

-609

901

907

-718

...

Paraguay

-258

543

1 632

-560

957

830

560

-957

-830

0

0

...

Peru

9 242

5 472

5 118

73

168

2 677

-73

-168

-2 677

0

0

...

Uruguay

-1 281

-3 076

265

-1 677

-2 189

1 926

1 677

2 189

-1 926

0

...

...

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

14 632

...

...

-3 518

...

...

3 518

...

...

0

...

...

The Caribbean

986

1 849

...

-1 353

71

...

1 310

-71

...

43

0

...

Antigua and Barbuda

-35

-27

...

58

-24

...

-58

24

...

0

0

...

Bahamas

1 437

...

...

28

...

...

-28

...

...

0

...

...

Barbados

226

84

...

-63

-123

...

63

123

...

0

...

...

Belize

71

...

...

-104

...

...

104

...

...

0

...

...

Dominica

36

91

…

26

96

...

-26

-96

...

0

0

...

Grenada

67

44

...

29

10

...

-29

-10

...

0

0

...

Guyana

169

...

...

25

...

...

-68

...

...

43

...

...

Jamaica

870

482

210

440

379

148

-440

-379

-148

0

0

0

Saint Kitts and Nevis

47

147

...

-38

44

...

38

-44

...

0

0

...

Saint Lucia

-51

18

...

61

-13

...

-61

13

...

0

0

...

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

128

142

...

15

20

...

-15

-20

...

0

0

...

Suriname

542

-1 262

...

-266

150

...

266

-150

...

0

0

...

Trinidad and Tobago

-2 521

2 130

...

-1 564

-467

...

1 564

467

...

0

...

...

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Estimates.

b Includes errors and omissions.

c A minus sign (-) indicates an increase in reserve assets.

Table A1.6

Latin America and the Caribbean: international trade of goods

(Indices: 2010=100)

Exports of goods. f.o.b.

Value

Volumen

Unit value

2015

2016

2017a

2015

2016

2017a

2015

2016

2017a

Latin America

104.0

105.6

117.4

116.5

122.7

127.6

89.3

86.0

92.0

Argentina

83.2

84.6

86.3

84.1

90.0

89.1

98.9

94.0

96.9

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

135.6

109.3

122.5

143.3

133.9

131.6

94.7

81.7

93.1

Brazil

94.4

91.6

107.2

112.1

115.9

121.1

84.2

79.0

88.5

Chile

87.4

85.2

95.1

109.3

108.8

107.7

80.0

78.3

88.2

Colombia

93.9

81.9

93.1

143.6

142.7

144.1

65.4

57.4

64.6

Costa Rica

125.9

135.7

146.0

134.3

147.1

154.4

93.7

92.2

94.5

Dominican Republic

138.5

144.7

151.8

150.0

160.1

164.1

92.3

90.3

92.5

Ecuador

105.0

96.1

109.7

125.2

123.1

124.4

83.9

78.0

88.2

El Salvador

126.1

120.5

128.5

118.2

115.3

121.7

106.7

104.5

105.6

Guatemala

126.8

124.0

130.2

146.7

139.9

141.3

86.4

88.6

92.2

Haiti

176.3

171.3

170.2

170.7

172.2

163.6

103.2

99.4

104.0

Honduras

130.7

125.2

132.8

154.6

148.0

150.9

84.5

84.6

88.0

Mexico

127.5

125.2

137.1

130.3

133.8

141.4

97.8

93.6

96.9

Nicaragua

141.6

138.4

150.8

132.5

136.7

146.0

106.8

101.2

103.3

Panama

100.7

92.3

99.7

99.6

94.5

100.1

101.1

97.7

99.6

Paraguay

104.0

106.5

112.2

107.9

113.8

118.3

96.4

93.6

94.8

Peru

96.1

103.4

124.1

108.2

121.0

132.0

88.8

85.5

94.0

Uruguay

138.8

134.1

145.4

131.3

135.0

143.1

105.7

99.3

101.6

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

55.8

...

...

80.2

...

...

69.6

...

...

Imports of goods. f.o.b.

Value

Volume

Unit value

2015

2016

2017a

2015

2016

2017a

2015

2016

2017a

Latin America

116.0

108.6

118.3

115.2

112.6

117.8

100.8

96.5

100.4

Argentina

105.6

98.3

117.5

107.5

111.8

128.5

98.2

87.9

91.4

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

161.1

141.1

153.4

100.3

89.0

92.6

160.6

158.6

165.7

Brazil

94.3

76.3

82.4

95.7

85.0

87.6

98.5

89.7

94.0

Chile

106.3

100.2

110.2

114.6

113.0

118.1

92.8

88.7

93.3

Colombia

135.5

112.6

120.5

143.4

134.8

140.1

94.5

83.5

86.0

Costa Rica

127.3

132.1

138.7

132.1

138.9

140.1

96.4

95.1

99.0

Dominican Republic

111.2

114.9

119.5

117.8

125.8

125.8

94.3

91.4

95.0

Ecuador

105.4

80.7

97.9

100.4

78.0

90.3

104.9

103.5

108.4

El Salvador

125.2

117.7

124.8

123.9

122.3

124.6

101.0

96.3

100.1

Guatemala

127.9

123.1

131.7

131.3

130.0

134.5

97.4

94.7

98.0

Haiti

103.6

95.6

111.0

87.7

83.1

94.8

118.1

115.2

117.0

Honduras

124.6

118.5

125.1

124.6

122.5

124.3

100.0

96.8

100.7

Mexico

131.1

128.4

138.4

126.7

124.7

129.7

103.5

102.9

106.7

Nicaragua

141.9

141.5

144.4

150.4

160.8

157.9

94.3

87.9

91.5

Panama

130.6

119.1

131.0

125.5

114.7

122.4

104.1

103.8

107.1

Paraguay

107.5

102.0

121.4

106.5

103.1

118.3

101.0

99.0

102.7

Peru

129.6

121.9

132.3

128.0

124.2

128.6

101.3

98.2

102.9

Uruguay

114.5

98.5

100.4

124.0

119.8

117.5

92.4

82.2

85.5

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

87.0

...

...

82.2

...

...

105.8

...

...

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Estimates.

Table A1.7

Latin America: terms of trade for goods f.o.b./f.o.b.

(Indices: 2010=100)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016a

2017a b

Latin America

97,0

89,7

100,0

107,9

104,5

102,0

97,7

88,6

89,2

91,6

Argentina

95,7

96,8

100,0

110,4

115,2

107,6

104,9

100,7

107,0

106,0

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

99,0

95,2

100,0

118,1

112,3

94,5

79,9

59,0

51,5

56,2

Brazil

88,5

86,2

100,0

107,8

101,5

99,5

96,1

85,5

88,1

94,1

Chile

78,4

82,0

100,0

101,3

94,8

91,9

90,1

86,2

88,3

94,6

Colombia

91,5

86,2

100,0

114,6

108,2

100,5

91,6

69,1

68,7

75,1

Costa Rica

100,8

104,1

100,0

96,3

95,8

96,1

97,0

97,3

97,0

95,5

Dominican Republic

96,0

103,8

100,0

94,7

93,8

91,5

93,3

97,9

98,9

97,3

Ecuador

103,7

86,7

100,0

112,4

112,1

113,2

106,7

80,0

75,4

81,3

El Salvador

94,1

105,9

100,0

97,5

97,1

94,5

96,7

105,6

108,6

105,4

Guatemala

92,6

100,5

100,0

99,1

93,7

91,8

92,3

88,7

93,5

94,1

Haiti

79,9

103,4

100,0

83,0

86,0

80,6

83,1

87,4

86,4

88,9

Honduras

91,1

97,3

100,0

108,4

94,6

88,6

90,4

84,5

87,4

87,4

Mexico

104,6

92,9

100,0

106,8

102,9

102,8

97,6

94,5

90,9

90,8

Nicaragua

90,2

98,3

100,0

106,6

106,5

98,2

100,1

113,3

115,1

112,9

Panama

97,3

101,9

100,0

97,8

98,2

97,7

99,7

97,1

94,1

93,1

Paraguay

102,3

100,0

100,0

102,4

103,4

102,8

103,3

95,5

94,6

92,4

Peru

84,6

82,6

100,0

107,2

105,0

99,0

93,6

87,7

87,0

91,4

Uruguay

94,1

100,5

100,0

102,4

106,3

108,1

112,3

114,5

120,8

118,9

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

115,5

84,1

100,0

120,2

121,4

118,9

111,8

65,7

…

…

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a The regional figure does not include the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.

b Estimates.

Table A1.8

Latin America and the Caribbean (selected countries): remittances from emigrant workers

(Millions of dollars)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017a

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

1 097

1 023

939

1 012

1 094

1 182

1 164

1 179

1 204

605b

Brazil

2 913

2 224

2 518

2 550

2191

2 124

2 128

2 459

2 365

1 685c

Colombia

4 785

4 090

3 996

4 064

3970

4 401

4 093

4 635

4 858

3 993c

Costa Rica

584

489

505

487

527

561

559

518

515

259b

Dominican Republic

…

…

3 683

4 008

4 045

4 262

4 571

4 961

5 261

4 485c

Ecuador

3 083

2 736

2 591

2 672

2 467

2 450

2 462

2 378

2 602

1 325b

El Salvador

3 742

3 387

3 455

3 628

3880

3 938

4 133

4 270

4 576

4 112

Guatemala

4 315

3 912

4 127

4 378

4783

5 105

5 544

6 285

7 160

6 825

Honduras

2 707

2 403

2 526

2 750

2842

3 093

3 437

3 726

3 946

2 179b

Jamaica

2 021

1 792

1 906

2 025

2037

2 065

2 157

2 226

2 291

732d

Mexico

25 145

21 306

21 304

22 803

22 438

22 303

23 647

24 792

26 972

21 224c

Nicaragua

818

768

823

912

1014

1 078

1 136

1 193

1 264

1 020c

Paraguay

202

201

274

451

528

519

422

462

547

432c

Peru

2 444

2 409

2 534

2 697

2 788

2 707

2 637

2 725

2 884

1 476b

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Figures as of October.

b Figures as of June.

c Figures as of September.

d Figures as of April.

Table A1.9

Latin America and the Caribbean: net resource transfera

(Millions of dollars)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017b

Latin America and the Caribbean

-31 135

-22 083

33 646

46 247

28 110

28 765

63 749

16 590

-8 420

...

Latin America

-29 096

-21 109

36 665

49 576

31 743

31 645

64 098

17 509

-8 747

-25 534

Argentina

-14 438

-16 227

-8 767

-15 841

-14 921

-11 864

-1 745

132

16 738

26 255

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

-177

-1 094

-707

923

-1 888

-1 840

-1 336

-880

-1 755

1 061

Brazil

-9 401

37 269

57 870

65 194

38 810

36 374

62 844

18 094

-8 313

-18 895

Chile

-1 523

-13 599

-15 522

3 006

-2 493

-486

-3 829

-1 695

-1 738

-8 447

Colombia

-516

-2 270

649

-1 950

1 759

5 218

11 676

13 542

7 358

6 586

Costa Rica

1 644

-180

589

979

3 065

1 064

226

206

-1 402

-1 794

Cuba

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

Dominican Republic

2 462

1 248

2 563

2 420

933

735

-882

-1 249

-1 606

-2 031

Ecuador

-2 246

-2 264

-625

-522

-1 611

1 427

-1 441

-1 076

-1 530

-3 916

El Salvador

1 477

179

-302

79

1 039

267

145

-52

-242

-436

Guatemala

906

-762

142

313

693

989

-105

-827

-1 139

-697

Haiti

960

699

3 188

1 798

788

625

325

170

273

371

Honduras

1 532

-429

546

521

32

894

225

67

-615

-2 189

Mexico

8 982

-1 985

13 556

22 125

9 719

11 229

9 631

-15 446

-4 638

-12 296

Nicaragua

1 258

873

749

980

802

967

812

996

723

624

Panama

1 732

-664

1 223

2 854

1 667

2 096

4 134

171

-616

-2 189

Paraguay

-915

-767

-1 036

-603

-1 184

-1 127

-279

-1 569

-964

142

Peru

-288

-6 728

3 531

-5 495

7 602

1 079

-3 146

1 698

-3 712

-5 902

Uruguay

3 045

929

-1 131

2 248

1 609

1 900

-465

-3 608

-5 571

-2 690

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

-23 589

-15 337

-19 853

-29 453

-14 681

-17 901

-12 691

8 834

...

...

The Caribbean

-2 039

-974

-3 019

-3 329

-3 632

-2 880

-349

-919

328

...

Antigua and Barbuda

292

108

146

88

140

191

-9

-116

-124

...

Bahamas

1 246

909

627

992

1 162

1 096

1 542

1 035

...

...

Barbados

140

242

96

150

139

-38

188

13

-137

...

Belize

38

15

-107

-60

-30

72

78

-24

...

...

Dominica

108

118

70

67

81

23

29

18

71

...

Grenada

201

160

154

177

157

223

6

9

-17

...

Guyana

262

-51

101

341

311

568

471

236

...

...

Jamaica

2 120

430

871

1 326

400

860

1 472

430

-88

-70

Saint Kitts and Nevis

183

172

142

129

52

50

-7

-35

66

...

Saint Lucia

257

125

195

231

158

84

-86

-162

-100

...

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

204

189

221

163

208

247

182

114

117

...

Suriname

-96

-68

-720

-569

-175

-84

196

514

-1 331

...

Trinidad and Tobago

-6 995

-3 324

-4 816

-6 364

-6 236

-6 173

-4 411

-2 950

1 872

...

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a The net resource transfer is calculated as total net capital income minus the income balance (net payments of profits and interest).Total net capital income is the balance on the capital and financial accounts plus errors and omissions, plus loans and the use of IMF credit plus exceptional financing. Negative figures indicate resources transferred outside the country.

b Preliminary figures.

Table A1.10

Latin America and the Caribbean: net foreign direct investmenta

(Millions of dollars)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017b

Latin America and the Caribbean

105 870

73 348

114 189

147 195

149 794

147 413

142 516

135 781

130 094

...

Latin America

100 118

70 351

111 689

145 481

149 208

146 561

140 053

133 664

129 200

...

Argentina

8 335

3 306

10 368

9 352

14 269

8 932

3 145

10 884

1 474

...

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

509

420

651

859

1 060

1 750

690

564

242

...

Brazil

24 601

36 033

61 689

85 091

81 399

54 744

71 135

61 200

65 351

...

Chile

9 476

6 733

6 693

4 122

10 006

11 204

11 211

3 726

5 101

...

Colombia

7 479

4 530

947

6 227

15 646

8 557

12 265

7 414

9 210

...

Costa Rica

2 240

1 340

1 589

2 328

1 803

2 401

2 818

2 541

2 440

...

Dominican Republic

2 870

2 165

2 024

2 277

3 142

1 991

2 209

2 205

2 407

...

Ecuador

1 057

309

166

644

567

727

772

1 322

755

...

El Salvador

824

366

-226

218

484

176

311

399

374

...

Guatemala

738

574

782

1 009

1 205

1 262

1 282

1 104

1 068

...

Haiti

39

57

186

114

156

162

99

106

105

...

Honduras

1 007

505

971

1 012

851

992

1 315

1 113

880

...

Mexico

28 256

8 300

12 931

11 948

-1 603

34 757

22 160

24 315

27 799

...

Nicaragua

608

463

475

929

704

665

790

905

860

...

Panama

2 196

1 259

2 363

2 956

3 254

3 612

4 130

3 966

5 041

...

Paraguay

263

71

462

581

697

245

412

306

320

...

Peru

6 188

6 020

8 189

7 194

11 710

9 663

3 640

8 144

6 560

...

Uruguay

2 117

1 512

2 349

2 511

2 179

2 793

2 373

842

-784

...

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

1 316

-3 613

-918

6 110

1 679

1 928

-704

2 609

...

...

The Caribbean

5 752

2 997

2 500

1 714

586

853

2 462

2 115

894

...

Antigua and Barbuda

159

81

97

65

133

95

40

96

42

...

Bahamas

860

664

872

667

526

382

251

76

...

...

Barbados

468

352

329

83

565

-62

...

...

...

...

Belize

167

108

95

95

193

92

138

59

...

...

Dominica

57

42

43

35

59

23

14

23

32

...

Grenada

135

103

60

43

31

113

58

89

91

...

Guyana

178

164

198

247

278

201

238

117

...

...

Jamaica

1 361

480

169

144

411

631

584

921

564

-148

Saint Kitts and Nevis

178

131

116

110

108

136

158

132

89

...

Saint Lucia

161

146

121

81

74

92

19

75

116

...

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

159

110

97

86

115

160

108

48

90

...

Suriname

-231

-93

-248

73

173

188

163

276

-284

...

Trinidad and Tobago

2 101

709

549

-13

-2 080

-1 197

689

205

153

...

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Corresponds to direct investment in the reporting economy after deduction of outward direct investment by residents of that country. Includes reinvestment of profits.

b Preliminary figures.

Table A1.11

Latin America and the Caribbean: gross external debt

(Millions of dollars, end-of-period stocks)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017a

Latin America and the Caribbeanb c

823 047

917 268

1 107 491

1 238 188

1 373 967

1 506 024

1 681 512

1 687 969

1 761 323

1 811 714

Latin Americac

809 488

902 907

1 090 706

1 220 283

1 356 029

1 486 815

1 661 238

1 665 716

1 737 090

1 787 117

Argentina

Total

154 091

149 359

144 653

156 300

156 478

155 489

158 742

167 412

181 170

204 818

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

Total

5 930

5 801

5 875

6 298

6 625

7 756

8 543

9 445

10 717

12 036

Brazil

Total

289 573

333 607

452 780

516 030

570 831

621 439

712 655

665 101

676 647

667 763

Chile

Total

63 534

72 617

86 570

100 973

122 668

136 351

152 135

157 764

163 789

173 565

Colombia

Total

46 436

53 779

64 792

75 622

78 784

92 073

101 404

110 502

120 153

124 770

Costa Rica

Total

8 827

8 276

9 527

11 286

15 381

19 629

21 671

24 030

25 470

26 232

Dominican Republic

Public

7 219

8 215

9 947

11 625

12 872

14 919

16 074

16 029

17 567

18 819

Ecuador

Total

16 900

13 514

13 914

15 210

15 913

18 788

24 112

27 720

34 181

36 151

El Salvador

Total

11 143

11 307

11 399

11 858

13 353

14 035

14 800

15 217

16 253

16 405

Guatemala

Total

11 163

11 248

12 026

14 021

15 339

17 826

20 031

20 885

21 651

22 267

Haiti

Public

1 917

1 278

353

727

1 126

1 503

1 875

1 993

2 019

2 124

Honduras

Total

3 499

3 365

3 785

4 208

4 861

6 709

7 184

7 456

7 506

8 392

Mexico

Total

123 626

160 427

194 766

210 713

226 492

259 977

286 624

298 398

316 194

323 423

Nicaragua

Public

3 512

3 661

4 068

4 263

4 481

4 724

4 796

4 804

5 042

5 341

Panama

Public

8 477

10 150

10 439

10 858

10 782

12 231

14 352

15 648

16 689

18 273

Paraguay

Total

3 220

3 177

3 713

3 970

4 563

4 776

6 126

6 513

7 122

7 876

Peru

Total

34 997

35 157

43 674

47 977

59 376

60 823

69 215

73 274

74 651

80 200

Uruguay

Total

15 425

17 969

18 425

18 345

36 104

37 767

40 898

43 527

40 268

38 662

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

Total

66 727

84 602

88 652

103 140

113 112

112 103

117 217

120 204

...

...

The Caribbean

Public

13 559

14 361

16 785

17 905

17 938

19 209

20 274

22 253

24 233

24 596

Antigua and Barbuda

Public

436

416

432

467

445

577

560

581

590

649

Bahamas

Public

443

767

916

1 045

1 465

1 616

2 095

2 185

2 371

2 311

Barbados

Public

1 089

1 321

1 366

1 385

1 322

1 434

1 521

1 490

1 538

1 507

Belize

Public

958

1 017

1 021

1 032

1 029

1 083

1 127

1 177

1 202

1 234

Dominica

Public

234

222

232

238

263

273

278

283

270

278

Grenada

Public

481

512

528

535

535

562

578

602

601

607

Guyana

Public

834

933

1 043

1 206

1 358

1 246

1 216

1 143

1 162

1 201

Jamaica

Public

6 344

6 594

8 390

8 626

8 256

8 310

8 659

10 314

10 244

10 184

Saint Kitts and Nevis

Public

312

325

296

320

317

320

280

213

197

189

Saint Lucia

Public

364

373

393

417

435

488

526

509

529

555

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

Public

229

262

313

328

329

354

385

399

465

474

Suriname

Public

319

269

334

601

707

878

942

1 156

1 869

1 957

Trinidad and Tobago

Public

1 515

1 351

1 522

1 706

1 478

2 068

2 109

2 203

3 194

3 451

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Preliminary figures.

b Includes debt owed to the International Monetary Fund.

c Does not include the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.

Table A1.12

Latin America and the Caribbean: sovereign spreads on EMBI+ and EMBI global

(Basis points to end of period)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017a

Latin America

EMBI +

722

328

305

410

317

410

491

584

483

437

Argentina

EMBI +

1 704

660

496

925

991

808

719

438

455

361

Belize

EMBI Global

...

...

617

1 391

2 245

807

819

822

1 837

717

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

EMBI Global

...

...

...

...

...

289

277

250

83

204

Brazil

EMBI +

428

192

189

223

142

224

259

523

328

243

Chile

EMBI Global

343

95

115

172

116

148

169

253

158

118

Colombia

EMBI +

498

196

172

195

112

166

196

321

227

185

Dominican Republic

EMBI Global

...

...

322

597

343

349

381

421

407

278

Ecuador

EMBI Global

4 731

769

913

846

826

530

883

1 266

647

563

El Salvador

EMBI Global

...

...

302

478

396

389

414

634

536

432

Jamaica

EMBI Global

...

...

427

637

711

641

485

469

375

286

Mexico

EMBI +

376

164

149

187

126

155

182

232

232

186

Panama

EMBI +

540

171

162

201

129

199

189

218

186

119

Paraguay

EMBI Global

...

...

...

...

...

240

291

338

281

196

Peru

EMBI +

509

165

163

216

114

159

181

246

175

114

Uruguay

EMBI Global

685

238

188

213

127

194

208

280

244

154

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

EMBI +

1 862

1 017

1 044

1 197

773

1 093

2 295

2 658

2 138

3 267

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of information from JPMorgan, Emerging Markets Bond Index Monitor.

a Figures as of October.

Table A1.13

Latin America and the Caribbean: sovereign risk premiums on five-year credit default swaps

(Basis points to end of period)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017a

Argentina

4 041

914

602

922

1 442

1 654

2 987

5 393

419

239

Brazil

301

123

111

162

108

194

201

495

281

171

Chile

203

68

84

132

72

80

94

129

83

55

Colombia

309

143

113

156

96

119

141

243

164

113

Mexico

293

134

114

154

98

92

103

170

156

102

Panama

302

134

99

150

98

111

109

182

127

70

Peru

304

124

113

172

97

133

115

188

108

71

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

3 218

1 104

1 016

928

647

1 150

3 155

4 868

3 750

5 542b

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of information from Bloomberg.

a Figures as of November.

b Figures as of October.

Table A1.14

Latin America and the Caribbean: international bond issuesa

(Millions of dollars)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017b

Total

19 848

64 750

90 183

91 687

114 241

123 332

133 056

78 606

129 364

126 246

National issues

19 401

63 250

88 657

90 272

111 757

121 518

129 743

75 436

124 528

122 456

Argentina

65

500

3 146

2 449

663

1 025

1 941

3 586

33783

21 318

Bahamas

100

300

-

-

-

-

300

-

-

-

Barbados

-

450

390

-

-

-

2 500

320

-

-

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

-

-

-

-

500

500

-

-

-

1 000

Brazil

6 520

25 745

39 305

38 369

50 255

37 262

45 364

7 188

20481

27 325

Chile

-

2 773

6 750

6 049

9 443

11 540

13 768

7 650

5336

13 861

Colombia

1 000

5 450

1 912

6 411

7 459

10 012

9 200

6 400

4 061

7 614

Costa Rica

-

-

-

250

1 250

3 000

1 000

1 000

500

300

Dominican Republic

-

-

1 034

750

750

1 800

1 500

3 500

1 870

2 017

Ecuador

-

-

-

-

-

-

2 000

1 500

2750

5 500

El Salvador

-

800

450

654

800

310

800

300

-

951

Guatemala

30

-

-

150

1 400

1 300

1 100

-

700

1 330

Honduras

-

-

20

-

-

1 000

-

-

-

850

Jamaica

350

750

1 075

694

1 750

1 800

1 800

2 925

364

869

Mexico

6 000

16 659

26 882

22 276

28 147

41 729

37 592

30 075

41539

25 188

Panama

686

1 323

-

897

1 100

1 350

1 935

1 700

2 200

3 021

Paraguay

-

-

-

100

500

500

1 000

280

600

500

Peru

-

2 150

4 693

2 155

7 240

5 840

5 944

6 407

1 960

8 462

Suriname

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

636

-

Trinidad and Tobago

-

850

-

175

-

550

-

-

1 600

-

Uruguay

-

500

-

1 693

500

2 000

2 000

2 605

1 147

2 350

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

4 650

5 000

3 000

7 200

-

-

-

-

5000

-

Supranational issues

447

1 500

1 526

1 415

2 484

1 814

3 313

3 171

4 837

3 790

Central American Bank for Economic Integration (CABEI)

-

500

151

-

250

520

505

521

887

382

Caribbean Development Bank (CDB)

-

-

-

175

-

-

-

-

-

-

Foreign Trade Bank of Latin America (BLADEX)

-

-

-

-

400

-

-

-

73

-

Development Bank of Latin America (CAF)

447

1 000

1 375

1 240

1 834

1 294

2 808

2 650

3376

3 408

Inter-American Investment Corporation

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

500

-

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of information from Merrill Lynch, J.P. Morgan and Latin Finance.

a Includes sovereign, bank and corporate bonds.

b Figures as of October.

Table A1.15

Latin America and the Caribbean: stock exchange indices

(National indices to end of period, 31 December 2005=100)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017a

Argentina

70

150

228

160

185

349

556

757

1 096

1 743

Brazil

112

205

207

170

182

154

149

130

180

215

Chile

121

182

251

213

219

188

196

187

211

255

Colombia

79

122

163

133

155

137

122

90

106

114

Costa Rica

207

142

118

121

129

190

211

191

250

-

Ecuador

128

107

126

128

135

148

168

161

150

182

Jamaica

77

80

82

91

88

77

73

144

184

263

Mexico

126

180

217

208

246

240

242

241

256

265

Peru

147

295

487

406

430

328

308

205

324

410

Trinidad and Tobago

79

72

78

95

100

111

108

109

113

120

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

175

275

325

585

2 355

13 685

19 295

72 940

158 525

6 599 350

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of information from Bloomberg.

a Figures as of November.

Table A1.16

Latin America and the Caribbean: gross international reserves

(Millions of dollars, end-of-period stocks)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

a

Latin America and the Caribbean

511 960

566 708

657 005

773 789

835 902

830 204

857 634

811 913

831 542

866 213

Latin America

498 078

552 701

641 017

756 685

820 023

813 981

839 372

795 049

814 669

849 881

Argentina

46 198

47 967

52 145

46 376

43 290

30 599

31 443

25 563

38 772

54 563

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

7 722

8 580

9 730

12 019

13 927

14 430

15 123

13 056

10 081

10 742

Brazil

193 783

238 520

288 575

352 012

373 147

358 808

363 551

356 464

365 016

381 056

Chile

23 162

25 373

27 864

41 979

41 650

41 094

40 447

38 643

40 483

38 033

Colombia

24 041

25 365

28 464

32 303

37 474

43 639

47 328

46 740

46 683

47 417

b

Costa Rica

3 799

4 066

4 627

4 756

6 857

7 331

7 211

7 834

7 574

6 837

Dominican Republic

2 662

3 307

3 765

4 098

3 559

4 701

4 862

5 266

6 047

6 345

Ecuadorc

4 473

3 792

2 622

2 958

2 483

4 361

3 949

2 496

4 259

4 018

El Salvador

2 544

2 985

2 882

2 503

3 175

2 745

2 693

2 787

3 238

3 683

b

Guatemalac

4 659

5 213

5 954

6 188

6 694

7 273

7 333

7 751

9 160

11 494

b

Haiti

587

733

1 284

1 344

1 337

1 690

1 163

977

1 105

1 245

b

Honduras

2 690

2 174

2 775

2 880

2 629

3 113

3 570

3 874

4 100

4 742

d

Mexico

95 302

99 893

120 587

149 209

167 050

180 200

195 682

177 597

178 025

176 441

b

Nicaragua

1 062

1 490

1 708

1 793

1 778

1 874

2 147

2 353

2 296

2 540

Panama

2 637

3 222

2 561

2 234

2 441

2 775

3 994

3 911

4 511

3 609

e

Paraguay

2 864

3 861

4 168

4 984

4 994

5 871

6 891

6 200

7 144

8 020

Peru

31 233

33 175

44 150

48 859

64 049

65 710

62 353

61 537

61 746

63 595

b

Uruguay

6 360

7 987

7 656

10 302

13 605

16 290

17 555

15 634

13 436

15 734

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

42 299

35 000

29 500

29 889

29 887

21 478

22 077

16 367

10 992

9 767

The Caribbean

13 882

14 007

15 988

17 104

15 879

16 223

18 262

16 863

16 874

16 332

Antigua and Barbudac

138

108

136

147

161

202

297

356

330

297

Bahamas

563

816

861

892

812

740

787

808

902

1 065

d

Barbados

523

563

575

587

630

516

467

434

315

253

d

Belize

156

210

216

242

289

402

483

432

371

300

Dominicac

55

64

66

75

92

85

100

125

221

240

f

Grenadac

104

112

103

106

104

135

158

189

201

207

f

Guyana

356

628

780

798

862

777

666

599

616

580

d

Jamaica

1 795

1 752

2 979

2 820

1 981

1 818

2 473

2 914

3 291

3 659

b

Saint Kitts and Nevisc

110

123

157

233

252

291

318

280

313

327

f

Saint Luciac

140

151

184

192

208

168

235

298

275

296

f

Saint Vincent and the Grenadinesc

83

75

111

88

109

133

156

165

191

180

f

Suriname

433

659

639

941

1 008

779

625

330

381

411

b

Trinidad and Tobagoc

9 425

8 746

9 181

9 983

9 371

10 176

11 497

9 933

9 466

8 517

b

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Figures as of November.

b Figures as of October.

c Net international reserves.

d Figures as of September.

e Figures as of August.

f Figures as of March.

Table A1.17

Latin America and the Caribbean: real effective exchange ratesa b

(Indices: 2005=100, average values for the period)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017c d

Latin America and the Caribbeane

89.9

90.5

85.5

83.8

82.1

81.9

82.9

84.1

85.3

83.6

Barbados

97.5

93.1

89.2

90.3

89.3

89.3

87.9

84.4

83.0

84.1

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

93.4

85.5

89.9

89.8

87.0

81.5

74.9

65.6

62.5

64.7

Brazil

80.4

82.3

72.0

69.2

77.6

83.0

85.4

106.1

101.6

92.5

Chile

97.3

101.6

96.3

95.3

94.0

95.2

105.4

109.4

108.4

105.2

Colombia

87.8

91.8

79.3

79.5

76.5

80.1

84.5

104.3

108.4

103.6

Costa Rica

94.1

92.8

82.4

79.7

76.6

74.1

77.4

73.5

75.0

78.8

Dominica

105.1

107.6

106.1

109.3

108.7

110.5

111.6

110.3

109.8

110.7

Dominican Republic

105.9

110.5

108.9

110.3

112.3

115.8

119.0

115.9

116.9

120.9

Ecuador

108.4

100.7

99.6

102.1

98.1

96.5

93.3

85.1

83.7

86.1

El Salvador

101.7

99.6

101.2

102.4

103.1

104.0

104.6

103.7

103.8

105.9

Guatemala

91.2

94.4

93.5

89.5

88.3

87.2

83.3

77.9

73.4

69.8

Honduras

94.2

87.1

86.1

85.4

83.8

84.8

82.8

82.6

84.0

85.5

Jamaica

99.1

110.7

98.1

96.2

95.2

99.8

106.0

104.9

113.9

120.2

Mexico

103.4

117.9

109.1

109.1

112.6

106.8

108.0

122.2

140.8

137.9

Nicaragua

94.9

103.4

100.8

105.8

103.4

100.1

105.3

100.8

103.2

109.2

Panama

106.5

103.5

103.0

103.9

94.4

92.2

89.0

85.5

84.6

85.6

Paraguay

73.8

81.6

80.1

71.7

73.0

68.3

66.0

67.1

69.7

71.6

Peru

99.5

97.8

94.4

96.6

90.1

90.5

93.1

94.9

96.3

92.7

Trinidad and Tobago

90.5

82.5

78.8

79.4

73.7

70.7

67.1

61.2

61.9

63.7

Uruguay

93.2

91.3

79.9

77.9

76.3

70.7

74.3

74.1

74.5

70.7

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a A country’s overall real effective exchange rate index is calculated by weighting its real bilateral exchange rate indices with each of its trading partners by each partner’s share in the country’s total trade flows in terms of exports and imports. The extraregional real effective exchange rate index excludes trade with other Latin American and Caribbean countries.

b A currency depreciates in real effective terms when this index rises and appreciates when it falls.

c Preliminary figures.

d Figures as of September.

e Simple average of the extraregional real effective exchange rate for 18 countries. Does not include countries with multiple exchange rates.

Table A1.18

Latin America and the Caribbean: participation rate

(Average annual rates)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2016

2017a

January to September

Latin America and the Caribbeanb

62.2

62.5

62.3

62.2

62.2

62.1

61.9

61.8

61.9

…

…

Argentinac

Urban areas

58.8

59.3

58.9

59.5

59.3

58.9

58.3

57.7d

57.5e

57.8f

57.4f

Bahamas

Nationwide total

…

73.4

…

72.3

74.6

73.2

73.7

74.3

76.9g

76.9g

80.0g

Barbados

Nationwide total

67.6

67.0

66.6

67.6

66.2

66.7

63.9

65.1

66.5

66.6h

65.4h

Belize

Nationwide total

59.2

…

…

…

65.8

64.0

63.6

63.2

64.0

63.7i

64.3i

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

Nationwide total

64.9

65.1

…

65.8

61.2

63.4

65.9

61.0

65.6

…

…

Brazilj

Nationwide totalk

57.0

56.7

57.1

57.1 |

61.4

61.3

61.0

61.3

61.4

61.4

61.7

Chilel

Nationwide total

56.0

55.9 |

58.5

59.8

59.5

59.6

59.8

59.7

59.5

59.4

59.6

Colombia

Nationwide total

58.5

61.3

62.7

63.7

64.5

64.2

64.2

64.7

64.5

64.2

64.2

Costa Rica j m

Nationwide total

56.7 |

60.4

59.1

60.7 |

62.5

62.2

62.6

61.2

58.4

57.8

59.4

Cuba

Nationwide total

74.7

75.4

74.9

76.1

74.2

72.9

71.9

67.1

65.2

…

…

Dominican Republic

Nationwide total

63.7

61.4

62.6

63.8

64.7

64.2

64.8

64.9

65.2

62.1n

62.0n

Ecuadorl

Nationwide totalo

67.7

66.3 |

63.7

62.5

63.0

62.9

63.2

66.2

68.2

68.5

68.8

El Salvador

Nationwide total

62.7

62.8

62.5

62.7

63.2

63.6

62.8

62.1

62.2

…

…

Guatemala

Nationwide total

…

…

…

61.8

65.4

60.6

60.9

60.7

60.8

61.5p

61.0p

Honduras

Nationwide total

51.0

53.1

53.6

51.9

50.8

53.7

56.0

58.3

57.5

…

…

Jamaica

Nationwide total

65.4

63.5

62.4

62.3

61.9

63.0

62.8

63.1

64.8

64.8

65.3

Mexico

Nationwide total

58.7

58.6

58.4

58.6

59.2

60.3

59.8

59.8

59.7

59.7

59.3

Nicaraguam

Nationwide total

53.3 |

66.6

71.2

75.6

76.8

75.8

74.0

72.4

73.6

73.1h

73.7h

Panama

Nationwide total

63.9

64.1

63.5

61.9

63.4

64.1

64.0

64.2

64.4

64.7q

64.7q

Paraguay

Nationwide total

62.2

63.1

60.8

61.1

64.4

63.3

62.3

62.1

62.6

…

…

Peru

Nationwide total

73.8

74.0

74.1

73.9

73.6

73.2

72.3

71.6

72.2

72.4

72.5

Trinidad and Tobago

Nationwide total

63.5

62.7

62.1

61.3

61.8

61.3

61.9

60.6

59.7

60.1r

59.8r

Uruguay

Nationwide total

62.7

63.4

62.9

64.8

64.0

63.6

64.7

63.8

63.4

63.4

62.9

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

Nationwide total

64.9

65.1

64.6

64.4

63.9

64.3

65.1

63.7

62.9s

…

…

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Preliminary figures.

b The regional series are weighted averages of national data (excluding Belize and Nicaragua) and include adjustments for lack of information and changes in methodology. The data relating to the different countries are not comparable owing to differences in coverage and in the definition of the working-age population.

c The National Institute of Statistics and Censuses (INDEC) of Argentina does not recognize the data for the period 2007-2015 and has them under review. These data are therefore preliminary and will be replaced when new official data are published.

d The figures refer to the average from the first to the third quarter.

e The figures refer to the average from the second to the fourth quarter.

f The figures in the last two columns refer to the second quarter.

g Figures as of May.

h The figures in the last two columns refer to the average for the first and second quarters.

i The figures in the last two columns refer to the mesurement for April.

j New measurements have been used since 2012; the data are not comparable with the previous series.

k Up to 2011, the figures refer to six metropolitan areas.

l New measurements have been used since 2010; the data are not comparable with the previous series.

m New measurements have been used since 2009; the data are not comparable with the previous series.

n The figures in the last two columns refer to the average for the first and second quarters. Owing to methodological changes, these are not comparable with the annual data.

o Up to 2009, urban areas.

p The figures in the last two columns refer to the average for February-March.

q The figures in the last two columns refer to the measurement for March.

r The figures in the last two columns refer to the first quarter.

s The figure refers to average from January to April.

Table A1.19

Latin America and the Caribbean: open urban unemploymenta

(Average annual rates)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

b

Latin America and the Caribbeanc

7.8

9.1

8.4

7.7

7.3

7.1

6.9

7.3

8.9

9.4

Argentinad

Urban areas

7.9

8.7

7.7

7.2

7.2

7.1

7.3

6.5e

8.5 f

9.0

g

Bahamash

Nationwide total

8.7

14.2

...

15.9

14.4

15.8

14.8

13.4

12.2

9.9

i

Barbadosh

Nationwide total

8.1

10.0

10.8

11.2

11.6

11.6

12.3

11.3

9.7

10.4

g

Belizeh

Nationwide total

8.2

13.1

12.5

...

15.3

13.2

11.6

10.1

9.5

9.0

j

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

Urban total

6.7

6.8

...

3.8

3.2

4.0

3.5

4.4

4.9

...

Brazilk

Twenty metropolitan areasl

7.9

8.1

6.7

6.0 |

8.2

8.0

7.8

9.3

13.0

14.5

Chilem

Urban total

...

11.3 |

8.5

7.4

6.7

6.2

6.7

6.4

6.8

6.9

Colombiah

Municipal capitals

12.1

13.2

12.7

11.8

11.4

10.7

10.0

9.8

10.3

10.6

Colombian

Municipal capitals

11.4

12.4

12.0

11.1

10.8

10.0

9.4

9.2

9.7

10.0

Costa Ricao

Urban total

4.8 |

8.5

7.1

7.7 |

9.8

9.1

9.5

9.7

9.6

8.9

p

Cuba

Nationwide total

1.6

1.7

2.5

3.2

3.5

3.3

2.7

2.5

2.0

...

Dominican Republicq

Nationwide total

4.7

5.3

5.0

5.8

6.5

7.1

6.4 |

7.3

7.1

5.6

g

Ecuadorh

Urban total

6.9

8.5

7.6

6.0

4.9

4.7

5.1

5.4

6.8

5.5

Ecuadorn

Urban total

5.4

6.9

6.1

5.0

4.2

4.0

4.3

4.7

5.9

4.9

El Salvador

Urban total

5.5

7.1

6.8

6.6

6.2

5.6

6.7

6.5

6.9

...

Guatemala

Urban total

...

...

...

3.1

4.0

3.8

4.0

3.2

3.4

4.0

r

Honduras

Urban total

4.1

4.9

6.4

6.8

5.6

6.0

7.5

8.8

9.0

...

Jamaicah

Nationwide total

10.6

11.4 |

12.4

12.6

13.9

15.2

13.7

13.5

13.2

11.1

e

Jamaican

Nationwide total

6.9

7.5 |

8.0

8.4

9.3

10.3

9.5

9.8

9.0

8.0

e

Mexico

Urban total

4.3

5.9

5.9

5.6

5.4

5.4

5.3

4.7

4.3

3.8

Nicaragua

Urban total

8.0

10.2

10.5

8.1

8.7

7.7

8.5

7.7

6.3

5.2

g

Panamah

Urban total

6.5

7.9

7.7

5.4

4.8

4.7

5.4

5.8

6.4

6.4

s

Panaman

Urban total

5.0

6.3

5.8

3.6

3.6

3.7

4.1

4.5

5.2

5.4

s

Paraguay

Asuncion and urban areas of Central Departmentt

7.4

8.2 |

7.4

6.9

7.9

7.7

7.8

6.5

7.7

8.7

g

Peru

Urban total

6.0

5.9

5.3

5.1

4.7

4.8

4.5

4.4

5.2

5.4

Trinidad and Tobagoh

Nationwide total

4.6

5.3

5.9

5.1

5.0

3.6

3.3

3.5

4.0

4.5

u

Uruguay

Urban total

8.3

8.2

7.5

6.6

6.7

6.7

6.9

7.8

8.2

8.4

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)h

Nationwide total

7.3

7.9

8.7

8.3

8.1

7.8

7.2

7.0

7.5 v

...

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of household surveys.

a Unemployed population as a percentage of the economically active population.

b Estimate based on data from January to September.

c Weighted average adjusted for lack of information and differences and changes in methodology. The data relating to the different countries are not comparable owing to differences in coverage and in the definition of the working age population.

d The National Institute of Statistics and Censuses (INDEC) of Argentina does not recognize the data for the period 2007-2015 and has them under review. These data are therefore preliminary and will be replaced when new official data are published.

e The figure refers to average from the first to the third quarter.

f The figure refers to the average for the second to the fourth quarter.

g Figures as of first semester.

h Includes hidden unemployement.

i Figures as of May.

j Figures as of April.

k New measurements have been used since 2012; the data are not comparable with the previous series.

l Up to 2011, the figures refer to six metropolitan areas.

m New measurements have been used since 2010; the data are not comparable with the previous series.

n Includes an adjustment to the figures for the economically active population to exclude hidden unemployment.

o New measurements have been used since 2009; the data are not comparable with the previous series.

p January-September average.

q New measurements have been used since 2015; the data are not comparable with the previous series.

r The figure refers to the measurement for February and March.

s Figures as of March.

t Up to 2009, urban total.

u Figures as of first quarter.

v January-April average.

Table A1.20

Latin America and the Caribbean: employment ratea

(Average annual rates)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016b

2016

2017b

January to September

Latin America and the Caribbeanc

58.1

57.7

57.7

57.9

58.2

58.1

58.1

57.7

57.1

...

...

Argentinad

Urban areas

54.2

54.2

54.4

55.2

55.0

54.7

54.0

53.9e

52.6f

52.4g

52.4g

Bahamas

Nationwide total

69.7

63.0

...

60.6

64.1

61.6

62.8

64.3

67.1h

67.1h

72.1h

Barbados

Nationwide total

62.1

60.3

59.4

60.0

58.5

58.9

56.0

57.7

60.0

60.1i

58.6i

Belize

Nationwide total

54.3

...

...

...

55.7

55.7

56.3

56.8

57.9

58.7j

58.5j

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

Nationwide total

63.1

63.0

...

64.2

59.7

61.5

64.3

58.9

63.4

...

...

Brazilk

Nationwide totall

52.5

52.1

53.2

53.7 |

56.9

56.9

56.8

56.1

54.3

54.4

53.6

Chilem

Nationwide total

51.7

50.5 |

53.7

55.5

55.7

56.0

56.0

56.0

55.6

55.5

55.5

Colombia

Nationwide total

51.9

53.9

55.4

56.8

57.9

58.0

58.4

59.0

58.5

58.0

58.0

Costa Ricak n

Nationwide total

53.9 |

55.4

54.8

56.0 |

56.2

56.4

56.6

55.4

52.8

52.3

54.1

Cuba

Nationwide total

73.6

74.2

73.0

73.6

71.6

70.5

70.0

65.4

63.8

...

...

Dominican Republic

Nationwide total

54.7

52.3

53.6

54.5

55.2

54.6

55.4

55.8

56.6

57.4o

58.8o

Ecuadorm

Nationwide totalp

63.1

60.7 |

60.1

59.6

60.4

60.3

60.4

63.3

64.6

64.8

65.9

El Salvador

Nationwide total

59.0

59.2

58.1

58.6

59.4

59.9

58.4

57.8

57.9

...

...

Guatemala

Nationwide total

...

...

...

59.2

63.5

58.7

59.1

59.2

59.2

59.6q

59.0q

Honduras

Nationwide total

49.4

51.5

51.5

49.7

48.9

51.6

53.1

54.0

53.2

...

...

Jamaica

Nationwide total

58.5

56.3 |

54.6

54.4

53.3

53.4

54.2

54.6

56.2

56.2

57.4

Mexico

Nationwide total

56.3

55.4

55.3

55.5

56.3

56.2

56.9

57.2

57.4

57.3

57.3

Nicaraguan

Nationwide total

50.1 |

61.3

65.6

71.2

72.3

71.5

69.1

68.1

70.2

69.3i

70.8i

Panama

Nationwide total

60.3

59.9

59.4

59.1

60.8

61.5

60.9

60.9

60.8

61.1r

61.1r

Paraguay

Nationwide total

58.7

59.1

57.3

57.7

61.5

60.1

58.6

58.7

58.9

...

...

Peru

Nationwide total

70.4

70.7

71.1

70.9

70.8

70.3

69.6

68.9

69.1

69.0

69.2

Trinidad and Tobago

Nationwide total

60.6

59.4

58.4

58.2

58.8

59.1

59.9

58.5

57.4

57.8s

57.1s

Uruguay

Nationwide total

57.7

58.5

58.4

60.7

59.9

59.5

60.4

59.0

58.4

58.4

57.8

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

Nationwide total

60.2

60.0

59.0

59.0

58.7

59.3

60.4

59.2

58.2t

...

...

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Employed population as a percentage of the working-age population.

b Preliminary figures.

c The regional series are weighted averages of national data (excluding Belize and Nicaragua) and include adjustment for lack of information and changes in methodology. The data relating to the different countries are not comparable owing to differences in coverage and in the definition of the working age population.

d The National Institute of Statistics and Censuses (INDEC) of Argentina does not recognize the data for the period 2007-2015 and has them under review. These data are therefore preliminary and will be replaced when new official data are published.

e The figure refers to average from the first to the third quarter.

f The figure refers to average from the second to the fourth quarter.

g The figures in the last two columns refer to the second quarter.

h Figures as of May.

i The figures in the last two columns refer to the average for the first and second quarters.

j The figures in the last two columns correspond to the measurement for April.

k New measurements have been used since 2012; the data are not comparable with the previous series.

l Up to 2011, the figures refer to six metropolitan areas.

m New measurements have been used since 2010; the data are not comparable with the previous series

n New measurements have been used since 2009; the data are not comparable with the previous series.

o The figures in the last two columns refer to the average for the first and second quarters. Owing to methodological changes, these are not comparable with the annual data.

p Up to 2009, urban total.

q The figures in the last two columns refer to the average for February-March.

r The figures in the last two columns refer to the measurement for March.

s The figures in the last two columns refer to the first quarter.

t The figure refers to average from January to April.

Table A1.21

Latin America: real average wagesa

(Index 2010=100)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017b

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)c

94.4

96.5

100.0

98.2

99.3

100.3

101.8

108.8

110.7

…

Brazild

96.3

98.5

100.0

101.4

104.9

107.1

108.8

105.3

103.8

105.8

Chilee

93.4

97.9

100.0

102.5

105.8

109.9

111.9

113.9

115.4

117.8

Colombiaf

96.1

97.3

100.0

100.3

101.3

104.0

104.5

105.4

103.8

105.9

Costa Ricag

90.9

97.9

100.0

105.7

107.1

108.5

110.7

115.2

119.7

121.4h

Cuba

95.3

99.7

100.0

100.2

100.7

101.2

124.0

143.1

154.8

...

El Salvadori

95.6

98.9

100.0

97.1

97.3

97.8

98.5

100.9

102.3

107.9j

Guatemalag

97.1

97.2

100.0

100.4

104.4

104.3

106.8

110.4

108.2

...

Mexicog

101.9

100.9

100.0

100.8

101.0

100.9

101.3

102.8

103.8

102.6

Nicaraguag

93.3

98.8

100.0

100.1

100.5

100.7

102.4

105.2

106.4

108.6

Panama

90.9

93.3

100.0

100.1

103.5

103.8

109.5

113.1

118.0

...

Paraguay

95.0

99.4

100.0

102.8

103.5

105.7

107.0

107.5

108.2

109.9k

Peul

100.0

103.1

100.0

108.4

111.0

114.7

117.9

117.5

119.5

118.4

Uruguay

90.2

96.8

100.0

104.0

108.4

111.7

115.4

117.3

118.9

122.6

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

112.1

105.6

100.0

103.0

109.1

104.3

...

...

...

...

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Figures deflated by the official consumer price index of each country.

b Estimate based on data from January to September.

c Private sector average wage index.

d Private sector workers covered by social and labour legislation.

e General index of hourly remuneration.

f Manufacturing.

g Average wage declared by workers registered with and paying into social security.

h Estimate based on the average for January-August.

i Average taxable wage.

j Interannual variation of the period from January to August.

k Estimate based on interannual grwoth of average for January-June.

l Payroll workers in the Lima metropolitan area. Until 2010, formal private sector workers in the Lima metropolitan area.

Table A1.22

Latin America and the Caribbean: monetary indicators

(Percentage variation with respect to the year-earlier period)

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016a

Latin America

Argentina

Monetary base

19.1

5.4

25.1

37.1

34.9

30.2

19.7

33.2

27.9

32.9

Money (M1)

16.7

13.0

24.1

32.4

33.3

29.5

26.1

31.6

20.2

30.9

M2

18.1

5.9

27.6

36.9

32.4

30.9

23.1

33.2

23.9

28.9

Foreign-currency deposits

36.4

61.6

35.9

8.7

-22.6

-6.1

51.7

38.5

172.5

130.6

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

Monetary base

53.8

19.6

32.4

11.6

18.2

10.8

9.5

19.2

3.9

-5.0

b

Money (M1)

50.2

9.4

24.1

27.2

18.3

13.5

15.4

9.4

9.6

0.4

c

M2

59.6

18.4

34.6

34.0

31.3

22.6

18.8

18.4

12.5

6.0

c

Foreign-currency deposits

-9.2

20.4

4.7

-12.8

-5.0

-4.1

-3.4

3.7

-1.0

-3.0

c

Brazil

Monetary base

12.5

8.0

17.5

11.0

9.4

5.5

7.2

3.0

3.2

5.9

Money (M1)

11.8

7.4

17.5

6.1

5.9

10.7

4.7

-1.6

-0.3

3.3

M2

30.3

22.1

11.1

21.0

13.4

9.3

11.7

6.8

4.9

4.9

Chile

Monetary base

7.0

15.0

13.8

14.8

13.7

16.3

5.3

9.6

11.4

7.4

Money (M1)

11.1

14.1

27.7

10.9

9.1

10.1

12.1

14.3

6.4

7.9

M2

18.5

5.4

6.3

16.0

18.3

10.3

7.7

11.3

9.8

5.1

Foreign-currency deposits

40.7

2.6

8.5

11.8

8.9

18.7

29.0

18.7

8.0

-3.1

Colombia

Monetary base

14.3

10.3

12.4

15.1

9.5

12.5

16.7

15.0

8.8

0.1

Money (M1)

8.0

9.7

14.7

16.2

6.7

14.3

14.8

10.4

3.9

0.2

M2

14.6

13.2

6.9

14.8

16.9

17.5

12.9

10.1

10.5

5.6

Costa Rica

Monetary base

25.7

6.3

10.0

11.7

12.1

14.1

11.7

11.1

10.1

6.9

c

Money (M1)

34.2

-3.5

11.0

17.7

8.4

13.2

12.3

9.6

17.8

3.5

c

M2

28.2

1.1

3.5

10.8

13.1

13.6

14.0

8.9

4.1

1.2

c

Foreign-currency deposits

19.3

37.1

-3.2

-6.5

-0.6

0.8

15.9

0.8

1.4

12.6

c

Dominican Republic

Monetary base

12.3

3.4

6.4

5.8

9.0

3.9

3.3

22.1

9.1

3.6

Money (M1)

11.0

-1.1

17.5

4.9

7.3

12.1

13.6

12.9

13.9

4.7

M2

10.9

7.6

13.5

8.8

12.1

8.0

11.2

10.7

12.2

6.9

Foreign-currency deposits

15.0

4.4

18.9

17.8

18.4

16.1

11.5

11.9

8.9

10.4

Ecuador

Monetary base

16.4

18.1

24.1

9.9

16.1

23.3

17.5

16.9

22.8

15.4

Money (M1)

44.5

38.0

16.1

15.5

14.0

14.8

14.4

10.6

10.4

14.1

M2

33.0

22.0

18.6

20.0

17.8

13.4

14.5

6.7

6.6

14.6

El Salvador

Monetary base

8.1

10.8

0.4

-1.3

1.8

4.8

2.8

1.2

3.5

8.8

Money (M1)

8.5

7.6

19.8

10.4

4.4

2.9

4.0

4.9

3.9

4.2

M2

6.0

0.4

4.2

1.4

1.5

2.5

1.3

2.9

5.6

6.1

Guatemala

Monetary base

4.1

6.6

8.0

10.1

5.8

9.2

5.8

12.1

9.7

10.9

Money (M1)

3.4

7.6

7.2

9.1

5.8

6.9

5.2

11.9

6.1

7.2

M2

7.3

9.4

8.4

10.7

9.3

9.7

8.1

11.5

7.9

8.0

Foreign-currency deposits

9.9

18.1

11.6

4.9

3.2

11.2

9.4

6.0

4.2

-1.9

Haiti

Monetary base

16.1

14.2

34.1

18.1

9.2

0.4

-1.0

15.4

26.2

17.4

c

Money (M1)

21.4

9.2

26.9

14.4

8.7

11.1

8.7

12.7

6.0

18.4

c

M2

13.7

6.9

17.4

11.5

5.7

9.4

8.4

12.5

8.5

15.0

c

Foreign-currency deposits

22.1

14.4

22.5

18.4

6.9

8.2

8.5

18.5

27.7

21.9

c

Honduras

Monetary base

24.8

11.6

-13.8

10.7

11.3

4.0

9.7

16.6

14.9

21.1

c

Money (M1)

11.5

2.2

5.2

17.7

2.1

-5.0

8.4

18.9

10.2

20.1

c

M2

9.2

0.8

4.7

17.2

8.7

3.6

8.9

12.7

10.5

14.9

c

Foreign-currency deposits

20.3

-1.0

5.4

7.8

15.3

12.6

7.3

11.3

8.2

16.0

c

Mexico

Monetary base

12.6

15.9

9.7

9.5

13.9

6.3

13.5

20.1

15.9

11.9

Money (M1)

8.5

11.8

11.2

16.2

13.7

7.5

13.9

16.1

12.0

10.5

M2

13.9

11.5

5.8

12.4

10.7

7.1

11.0

13.5

10.2

10.1

Foreign-currency deposits

2.8

20.7

0.9

3.0

16.8

13.3

26.6

40.0

30.4

33.6

Nicaragua

Monetary base

15.2

0.7

24.0

20.5

18.3

6.3

12.9

17.4

11.3

5.8

b

Money (M1)

32.9

4.4

21.4

24.8

17.6

8.5

16.5

21.0

9.5

8.0

b

M2

32.9

4.4

21.4

24.8

17.6

8.5

16.5

21.0

9.5

8.0

b

Foreign-currency deposits

10.2

5.3

25.8

7.8

21.2

13.6

20.4

16.3

14.8

13.2

b

Panama

Monetary base

17.7

11.2

7.5

27.1

12.7

16.0

-1.2

28.5

7.9

1.9

Money (M1)

26.5

17.4

19.2

21.5

17.1

6.9

15.1

-0.4

0.2

0.8

M2

17.1

9.2

11.3

9.9

10.8

6.3

13.3

4.8

6.1

5.5

Paraguay

Monetary base

27.6

30.7

5.2

5.0

11.8

5.1

8.3

11.3

2.7

9.8

Money (M1)

30.5

6.6

28.7

7.8

8.6

15.6

9.6

11.6

3.1

13.6

M2

38.4

13.3

26.4

14.0

13.7

17.4

10.6

11.2

3.9

12.5

Foreign-currency deposits

21.1

40.1

16.4

13.5

14.9

15.8

29.3

22.3

13.9

2.1

Peru

Monetary base

38.2

2.1

24.2

31.3

31.2

21.1

-8.6

-0.9

3.3

5.1

Money (M1)

31.3

8.8

28.0

19.7

18.7

14.3

4.9

5.1

4.4

6.7

M2

48.5

-2.2

27.8

18.7

23.2

18.4

2.5

2.9

10.2

11.2

Foreign-currency deposits

11.2

23.1

-0.1

13.8

0.4

16.3

21.4

17.3

5.9

-10.5

Uruguay

Monetary base

28.6

6.1

12.9

23.1

21.8

15.3

11.0

11.5

10.9

15.4

Money (M1)

22.4

13.1

24.6

19.6

18.4

11.7

6.1

7.1

2.2

12.9

M2

26.1

11.3

25.8

26.0

17.4

12.4

8.7

9.4

11.1

15.3

Foreign-currency deposits

3.1

24.1

2.3

10.7

19.6

14.8

25.8

26.6

17.2

-8.4

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

Monetary base

39.5

18.3

24.5

27.0

40.8

61.1

86.5

95.2

144.2

503.7

Money (M1)

24.3

28.8

27.5

44.8

62.0

66.1

69.5

85.1

116.6

302.2

c

M2

16.9

28.3

18.0

37.6

57.5

65.4

69.1

84.9

116.4

298.1

c

The Caribbean

Antigua and Barbuda

Monetary base

2.0

-10.5

0.9

20.1

29.4

13.2

20.0

14.4

11.5

-10.0

d

Money (M1)

6.7

-14.2

-7.3

-6.6

-2.1

3.1

11.5

4.4

12.0

12.0

d

M2

7.6

-2.9

-3.1

-1.1

1.7

2.8

3.5

2.5

0.1

4.9

d

Foreign-currency deposits

-0.5

39.9

-45.2

5.8

-12.8

0.9

20.0

17.0

17.3

12.8

d

Bahamas

Monetary base

6.4

2.0

2.5

26.8

-7.8

2.2

13.8

-1.8

24.7

12.7

d

Money (M1)

0.3

-0.2

2.8

6.2

8.6

5.6

8.4

18.7

9.0

16.9

d

M2

6.5

2.8

2.8

2.3

1.1

-0.6

0.1

1.5

2.7

6.0

d

Foreign-currency deposits

15.9

8.4

0.1

-2.7

11.6

15.8

-1.5

-19.9

1.2

49.6

d

Barbados

Monetary base

9.2

-13.9

3.4

7.7

-0.9

10.6

5.8

31.5

24.1

16.6

Money (M1)

7.7

-5.3

1.7

-0.5

-20.3

5.5

9.4

14.1

15.0

10.2

c

M2

9.3

-1.0

-0.8

0.3

-5.7

3.5

1.5

3.4

4.3

2.7

c

Belize

Monetary base

11.5

11.9

-1.2

8.2

17.5

19.2

18.8

24.6

12.6

-12.0

Money (M1)

9.2

-1.9

-0.9

9.1

24.0

13.7

14.0

14.6

10.3

-7.6

Dominica

Monetary base

-0.1

-4.6

9.7

8.5

17.8

0.0

15.0

19.1

40.7

70.8

d

Money (M1)

4.4

-1.3

-1.5

-2.1

9.8

2.5

2.2

7.8

18.1

8.5

d

M2

8.2

7.5

3.8

3.2

7.0

4.5

6.5

4.3

6.0

5.0

d

Foreign-currency deposits

19.0

15.9

30.2

38.8

25.4

-6.1

13.5

1.3

3.2

-7.7

d

Grenada

Monetary base

3.5

-8.5

6.0

7.2

4.7

5.4

21.1

6.1

3.8

7.2

d

Money (M1)

3.1

-12.9

3.8

-7.3

2.9

5.4

24.1

20.6

11.1

1.4

d

M2

8.3

0.8

3.4

0.4

1.8

3.0

5.2

3.7

1.7

0.1

d

Foreign-currency deposits

2.7

17.4

-3.9

-5.5

5.5

-18.8

7.8

17.4

35.9

6.1

d

Guyana

Monetary base

16.5

10.6

17.7

17.4

15.2

6.6

2.5

14.3

13.5

7.2

Money (M1)

18.6

8.2

12.9

21.9

16.1

6.7

10.1

7.9

7.1

9.5

Jamaica

Monetary base

9.5

22.8

5.5

5.3

6.3

6.3

5.9

9.9

15.5

17.9

Money (M1)

9.1

7.6

7.0

7.8

4.7

5.9

5.0

15.7

22.4

25.0

e

M2

7.9

4.4

6.1

5.6

3.3

6.4

2.6

9.9

15.5

23.2

e

Foreign-currency deposits

10.9

17.5

-0.9

-4.8

6.8

28.5

9.2

15.6

27.5

36.1

e

Saint Kitts and Nevis

Monetary base

7.3

48.3

-3.2

36.1

13.7

22.2

10.5

-14.5

15.8

-1.0

d

Money (M1)

7.2

9.2

17.0

31.3

17.3

10.8

1.5

10.8

-0.7

-9.2

d

M2

10.3

10.2

9.5

12.7

8.6

4.5

6.4

5.9

0.2

-5.7

d

Foreign-currency deposits

-9.2

-7.0

-8.8

4.5

15.1

18.4

46.4

16.3

-6.3

-2.0

d

Saint Lucia

Monetary base

10.2

8.5

3.6

16.3

4.2

8.0

8.0

25.2

2.5

-1.4

d

Money (M1)

7.1

-2.4

-4.3

4.0

3.2

2.2

7.1

3.0

6.5

10.6

d

M2

10.7

4.1

0.2

4.9

3.7

3.5

-1.0

1.6

3.1

2.5

d

Foreign-currency deposits

8.9

9.3

-13.2

16.4

14.0

-10.1

45.0

20.1

11.1

9.2

d

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

Monetary base

2.0

-3.2

11.9

0.8

11.8

26.2

16.9

8.3

13.3

3.7

d

Dinero (M1)

-1.4

-8.3

-0.5

-3.9

-0.4

9.6

5.8

8.6

10.0

6.7

d

M2

1.9

0.8

2.2

1.9

1.2

8.6

8.1

5.6

4.6

3.5

d

Foreign-currency deposits

1.5

-6.5

-7.7

30.8

-7.3

28.9

15.8

17.6

6.4

-5.2

d

Suriname

Monetary base

30.2

22.1

13.0

3.2

27.0

13.8

-7.2

-6.2

30.3

23.5

Money (M1)

21.3

26.3

16.7

5.3

17.0

11.3

5.4

-5.1

14.9

12.8

M2

21.0

25.1

18.2

7.0

20.0

17.7

8.1

-2.8

12.4

11.1

Foreign-currency deposits

24.3

12.0

7.9

39.1

13.6

10.8

11.4

9.9

85.5

25.2

Trinidad and Tobago

Monetary base

32.3

37.6

24.7

14.1

15.4

19.5

8.0

-7.9

-7.3

-8.2

c

Money (M1)

17.6

24.0

25.5

17.2

15.4

19.2

19.8

0.0

1.2

-1.2

c

M2

17.2

17.6

17.9

8.4

12.0

11.8

11.6

3.8

2.8

-0.9

c

Foreign-currency deposits

21.1

32.2

7.9

-4.0

4.7

12.6

-5.7

1.6

7.3

-0.4

c

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Figures as of September.

b Figures as of July.

c Figures as of August.

d Figures as of June.

e Figures as of February.

Table A1.23

Latin America and the Caribbean: domestic credit

(Percentage variation with respect to the year-earlier period)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

a/

América Latina

Argentina

23.9

2.3

51.3

59.5

33.0

40.8

24.7

36.2

25.0

26.1

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

7.5

10.9

13.0

18.8

22.7

21.6

17.6

16.7

18.5

18.1

b

Brazil

15.8

11.3

18.0

17.6

16.8

11.9

9.5

9.0

9.5

7.8

Chile

18.4

6.6

-0.1

12.1

15.1

9.3

7.6

8.4

8.5

4.2

c

Colombia

15.7

14.4

25.9

19.0

15.7

13.8

12.2

16.6

8.4

8.8

d

Costa Rica

23.6

13.0

0.4

8.1

12.9

2.9

20.0

9.9

7.1

10.5

d

Dominican Republic

17.4

12.3

7.5

9.5

12.1

12.4

11.6

14.9

14.5

8.4

Ecuador

1.7

20.8

33.6

31.5

21.5

16.7

16.2

10.1

5.6

14.1

El Salvador

11.3

2.4

2.3

3.4

9.6

5.5

9.5

7.3

8.1

4.0

Guatemala

10.4

5.2

5.6

15.2

11.3

12.6

12.0

12.0

6.0

2.6

Haiti

7.8

9.7

-23.0

-17.1

11.4

70.0

30.4

18.2

10.2

11.5

d

Honduras

27.1

6.7

10.0

10.8

18.3

9.3

6.8

7.9

5.9

8.4

d

Mexico

8.7

16.8

9.6

11.0

10.9

9.4

9.9

12.6

14.1

8.6

d

Nicaragua

16.7

0.7

-4.5

-6.2

21.0

20.8

11.6

11.8

13.2

14.8

c

Panama

15.9

1.2

14.4

15.5

19.7

13.0

15.9

5.8

10.4

10.4

Paraguay

33.5

12.7

36.3

25.5

28.4

20.8

12.0

26.0

5.9

-2.2

Peru

9.4

9.9

24.1

12.0

9.6

6.6

18.6

14.2

12.3

8.6

Uruguay

...

...

3.9

24.7

19.4

16.5

18.6

12.9

33.4

6.1

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)f

22.0

28.4

13.7

36.0

56.1

61.9

63.8

74.5

100.1

200.0

d

The Caribbean

Antigua and Barbuda

12.5

19.9

0.6

-3.8

-3.0

-4.9

-0.4

-5.9

-10.8

8.6

b

Bahamas

7.5

5.3

3.4

0.8

4.0

1.9

0.0

0.7

0.7

2.8

b

Barbados

10.1

6.4

-0.5

-0.9

6.6

8.0

2.3

3.2

7.4

...

Belize

8.9

5.7

-0.4

-1.6

0.4

-2.6

-0.6

8.9

18.5

2.8

Dominica

5.0

8.5

12.5

13.7

7.6

7.7

1.7

-1.8

-24.3

-27.5

b

Grenada

13.1

8.9

3.9

2.6

5.0

-2.1

-9.0

-10.2

-11.2

-8.2

b

Guyana

15.8

4.5

-0.8

34.5

40.1

26.3

16.0

11.3

11.3

8.7

Jamaica

16.3

15.0

-3.4

-4.1

11.7

16.0

14.2

-2.2

4.7

17.3

f

Saint Kitts and Nevis

3.0

6.2

6.4

3.1

-6.8

-25.0

-18.7

-2.3

-8.2

-8.8

b

Saint Lucia

21.1

4.6

-0.3

2.9

6.6

5.4

-3.1

-12.2

-6.1

-7.7

b

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

9.5

7.1

1.5

-7.2

-1.0

6.5

3.5

5.4

0.3

-1.6

b

Suriname

18.5

16.9

21.4

20.8

10.3

23.5

21.5

23.5

33.8

8.8

Trinidad and Tobago

6.5

35.5

36.6

9.3

7.9

-20.4

-23.8

3.2

36.6

16.6

d

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Figures as of September.

b Figures as of June.

c Figures as of July.

d Figures as of August.

e Credit granted by the commercial and universal banks.

f Figures as of February.

Table A1.24

Latin America and the Caribbean: monetary policy rates

(Average rates)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

a

Latin America

Argentina

11.3

14.0

12.3

11.8

12.8

14.6

26.7

27.0

28.8

26.0

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

9.0

7.0

3.0

4.0

4.0

4.1

5.1

2.7

2.5

2.4

Brazil

12.4

10.1

9.9

11.8

8.5

8.4

11.0

13.6

14.2

10.4

Chile

7.2

1.8

1.5

4.8

5.0

4.9

3.7

3.1

3.5

2.7

Colombia

9.8

5.8

3.2

4.0

4.9

3.4

3.9

4.7

7.1

6.3

Costa Rica

8.0

9.6

8.1

5.6

5.0

4.4

4.9

3.5

1.8

3.3

Dominican Republic

9.0

5.1

4.2

6.4

5.8

5.3

6.3

5.4

5.1

5.5

Guatemala

6.9

5.5

4.5

4.9

5.2

5.1

4.6

3.3

3.0

3.0

Haiti

6.9

6.2

5.0

3.2

3.0

3.0

4.8

12.3

14.7

12.0

Honduras

8.4

4.9

4.5

4.8

6.6

7.0

7.0

6.5

5.7

5.5

Mexico

7.9

5.4

4.5

4.5

4.5

3.9

3.2

3.0

4.2

6.7

Paraguay

5.9

2.1

2.2

7.9

6.0

5.5

6.7

6.1

5.7

5.4

Peru

5.9

3.3

2.1

4.0

4.3

4.2

3.8

3.4

4.2

4.0

Uruguay b

7.4

8.5

6.3

7.5

8.8

9.3

…

…

…

…

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

12.3

8.1

6.3

6.4

6.4

6.2

6.4

6.2

6.5

6.5

c

The Caribbean

Antigua and Barbuda

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

d

Bahamas

5.3

5.3

5.3

4.8

4.5

4.5

4.5

4.5

4.5

4.0

Barbados

11.8

7.9

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

7.0

d

Belize

18.0

18.0

18.0

11.0

11.0

11.0

11.0

11.0

11.0

11.0

c

Dominica

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

d

Grenada

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

d

Guyana

6.6

6.9

6.4

5.4

5.4

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

d

Jamaica

14.1

14.8

9.0

6.6

6.3

5.8

5.8

5.5

5.1

4.9

e

Saint Kitts and Nevis

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

d

Saint Lucia

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

d

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

6.5

d

Trinidad and Tobago

8.4

7.5

4.7

3.2

2.9

2.8

2.8

4.1

4.8

4.8

d

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Figures as of October.

b As of June 2013, the interest rate was no longer used as an instrument of monetary policy.

c Figures as of July.

d Figures as of September.

e Figures as of April.

Table A1.25

Latin America and the Caribbean: representative lending rates

(Average rates)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

a

Latin America

Argentinab

19.8

21.3

15.2

17.7

19.3

21.6

29.3

28.2

33.3

26.4

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)c

8.9

8.5

5.2

6.3

6.7

7.0

6.5

6.4

6.2

5.9

Brazild

54.1

47.5

42.9

44.7

39.9

39.1

45.0

49.5

53.7

50.9

e

Chilef

15.2

12.9

11.8

12.4

13.5

13.2

10.8

9.3

10.4

11.6

Colombiag

19.6

15.6

12.4

12.8

13.7

12.2

12.1

12.1

14.7

14.0

Costa Ricah

16.7

21.6

19.8

18.1

19.7

17.4

16.6

15.9

14.7

14.4

e

Dominican Republici

...

...

...

...

15.5

13.6

13.9

14.9

15.1

14.5

e

Ecuadorj

9.8

9.2

9.0

8.3

8.2

8.2

8.1

8.3

8.7

8.0

e

El Salvadork

7.9

9.3

7.6

6.0

5.6

5.7

6.0

6.2

6.4

6.4

Guatemalah

13.4

13.8

13.3

13.4

13.5

13.6

13.8

13.2

13.1

13.1

Haitil

23.3

21.6

20.7

19.8

19.4

18.9

18.6

18.8

19.7

17.9

e

Hondurash

17.9

19.4

18.9

18.6

18.4

20.1

20.6

20.7

19.3

20.0

e

Mexicom

...

...

...

29.9

28.6

27.9

28.6

28.5

26.8

27.1

e

Nicaraguan

13.2

14.0

13.3

10.8

12.0

15.0

13.5

12.0

11.4

10.8

Panamao

8.2

8.3

7.9

7.3

7.0

7.4

7.6

7.6

7.6

7.5

e

Paraguayo

13.5

14.6

12.5

16.9

16.6

16.6

15.7

14.4

15.6

14.5

e

Perup

23.7

21.0

19.0

18.7

19.2

18.1

15.7

16.1

16.5

17.0

e

Uruguayq

13.1

16.6

12.0

11.0

12.0

13.3

17.2

17.0

17.6

15.9

e

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)r

22.8

20.6

18.0

17.4

16.2

15.6

17.2

20.0

21.5

21.5

e

The Caribbean

Antigua and Barbudas

10.1

9.5

10.2

10.1

9.4

9.4

9.6

8.7

9.2

9.0

t

Bahamasu

11.0

10.6

11.0

11.0

10.9

11.2

11.8

12.3

12.5

12.0

e

Barbadoss

9.3

8.8

8.3

8.1

7.2

7.0

7.0

6.9

6.7

6.7

e

Belizev

14.1

14.1

13.9

13.3

12.3

11.5

10.9

10.3

9.8

9.5

e

Dominicas

9.4

10.0

9.4

8.7

8.9

9.0

8.8

8.6

8.2

8.1

t

Grenadas

9.4

10.7

10.3

10.4

9.5

9.1

9.1

8.8

8.5

8.3

t

Guyanaq

13.9

14.0

15.2

14.7

14.0

12.1

11.1

10.8

10.7

10.6

e

Jamaicav

21.4

21.5

20.4

20.0

18.6

17.7

17.2

17.0

16.5

15.0

w

Saint Kitts and Neviss

8.6

8.6

8.5

9.2

8.5

8.4

8.8

8.5

8.5

8.5

t

Saint Lucias

9.3

9.5

9.5

9.2

8.6

8.4

8.4

8.5

8.2

8.1

t

Saint Vincent and the Grenadiness

9.5

9.1

9.0

9.0

9.3

9.2

9.3

9.3

9.1

8.8

t

Surinamex

12.0

11.7

11.7

11.8

11.7

12.0

12.3

12.6

13.5

14.4

e

Trinidad and Tobagoq

12.4

11.9

9.3

8.0

7.7

7.5

7.5

8.2

9.0

9.0

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Figures as of October.

a Local-currency loans to the non-financial private sector, at fixed or renegotiable rates, signature loans of up to 89 days.

c Nominal local-currency rate for 60-91-day operations.

d Interest rate on total consumer credit.

e Figures as of September.

f Non-adjustable 90-360 day operations.

g Weighted average of consumer, prime, ordinary and treasury lending rates for the working days of the month.

h Weighted average of the system lending rates in local currency.

i Market lending rate, average for transactions conducted in the last 30 business days.

j Effective benchmark lending rate for the corporate commercial segment.

k Basic lending rate for up to one year.

l Average of minimum and maximum lending rates.

m Average interest rate for credit cards from commercial banks and the TAC rate (Total Annual Cost).

n Weighted average of short-term business lending rates in local currency.

o Interest rate on one-year trade credit.

p Commercial lending rate, local currency.

q Business credit, 30-367 days.

r Average rate for loan operations for the six major commercial banks.

s Weighted average of lending rates.

t Figures as of June.

u Weighted average of lending and overdraft rates.

v Rate for personal and business loans, residential and other construction loans; weighted average.

w Figures as of July.

x Average of lending rates.

Table A1.26

Latin America and the Caribbean: consumer prices

(12-month percentage variation)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

a

Latin America and the Caribbeanb

8.3

4.6

6.5

6.8

5.7

7.5

9.4

16.5

...

...

Latin America and the Caribbeanc

7.0

3.5

5.4

5.8

4.9

5.0

6.3

7.9

7.3

5.3

Latin America

Argentina

7.2

7.7

10.9

9.5

10.8

10.9

23.9

27.5

38.5

22.9

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

11.9

0.3

7.2

6.9

4.5

6.5

5.2

3.0

4.0

3.0

Brazil

5.9

4.3

5.9

6.5

5.8

5.9

6.4

10.7

6.3

2.7

Chile

7.1

-1.4

3.0

4.4

1.5

3.0

4.6

4.4

2.7

1.9

Colombia

7.7

2.0

3.2

3.7

2.4

1.9

3.7

6.8

5.7

4.0

Costa Rica

13.9

4.0

5.8

4.7

4.5

3.7

5.1

-0.8

0.8

2.3

Cubad

-0.1

-0.1

1.5

1.3

2.0

0.0

2.1

2.8

...

...

Dominican Republic

4.5

5.7

6.3

7.8

3.9

3.9

1.6

2.3

1.7

3.5

Ecuador

8.8

4.3

3.3

5.4

4.2

2.7

3.7

3.4

1.1

-0.1

El Salvador

5.5

-0.2

2.1

5.1

0.8

0.8

0.5

1.0

-0.9

1.6

e

Guatemala

9.4

-0.3

5.4

6.2

3.4

4.4

2.9

3.1

4.2

4.2

Haiti

10.1

2.0

6.2

8.3

7.6

3.4

6.4

12.5

14.3

15.6

f

Honduras

10.8

3.0

6.5

5.6

5.4

4.9

5.8

2.4

3.3

4.0

Mexico

6.5

3.6

4.4

3.8

3.6

4.0

4.1

2.1

3.4

6.4

Nicaragua

12.7

1.8

9.1

8.6

7.1

5.4

6.4

2.9

3.1

4.6

Panama

6.8

1.9

4.9

6.3

4.6

3.7

1.0

0.3

1.5

0.5

Paraguay

7.5

1.9

7.2

4.9

4.0

3.7

4.2

3.1

3.9

4.9

Peru

6.7

0.2

2.1

4.7

2.6

2.9

3.2

4.4

3.2

2.0

Uruguay

9.2

5.9

6.9

8.6

7.5

8.5

8.3

9.4

8.1

6.0

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)g

31.9

25.1

27.2

27.6

20.1

56.2

68.5

180.9

...

The Caribbean

Antigua and Barbuda

0.7

2.4

2.9

4.0

1.8

1.1

1.3

0.9

-1.1

2.2

h

Bahamas

4.5

1.3

1.4

0.0

0.7

0.8

0.2

2.0

0.8

2.7

h

Barbados

7.3

4.4

6.5

9.6

2.4

1.1

2.3

-2.5

3.2

1.2

i

Belize

4.4

-0.4

0.0

2.6

0.8

1.6

-0.2

-0.6

1.1

0.7

f

Dominica

2.0

3.2

0.3

1.9

1.3

-0.4

0.5

-0.5

0.6

1.3

h

Grenada

5.2

-2.3

4.2

3.5

1.8

-1.7

-0.2

1.1

0.9

1.5

h

Guyana

6.4

3.6

4.5

3.3

3.4

0.9

1.2

-1.8

1.4

1.8

f

Jamaica

16.9

10.2

11.8

6.0

8.0

9.7

6.2

3.7

1.7

4.1

e

Saint Kitts and Nevis

6.5

1.2

4.3

2.0

0.5

0.6

-0.5

-2.4

0.0

0.5

h

Saint Lucia

3.4

-3.1

4.2

4.8

5.0

-0.7

3.7

-2.6

-2.8

-0.3

e

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

8.7

-1.6

0.9

4.7

1.0

0.0

0.1

-2.1

1.0

1.9

h

Suriname

9.4

1.3

10.3

15.3

4.4

0.6

3.9

25.2

49.2

16.2

f

Trinidad and Tobago

14.5

1.3

13.4

5.3

7.2

5.6

8.5

1.5

3.1

1.2

e

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Twelve-month variation to October 2017.

b Weighted average.

c Weighted average, does not include the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.

d Refers to national-currency markets.

e Twelve-month variation to September 2017.

f Twelve-month variation to August 2017.

g Up to 2008, national consumer price index.

h Twelve-month variation to March 2017.

i Twelve-month variation to June 2017.

Table A1.27

Latin America and the Caribbean: fiscal balances

(Percentages of GDP)

Primary balance

Overall balance

2014

2015

2016

2017a

2014

2015

2016

2017a

Latin America and the Caribbeanb

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0.0

-2.8

-2.8

-2.7

-2.8

Latin Americac

-1.0

-0.9

-1.0

-0.8

-2.8

-2.9

-3.1

-3.1

Argentina

-2.3

-1.9

-2.2

-2.5

-4.2

-3.7

-5.9

-5.5

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)d

-1.7

-3.6

-2.4

...

-2.5

-4.5

-3.0

...

Brazil

-0.3

-1.9

-2.5

-2.2

-5.0

-9.0

-7.6

-7.8

Chile

-1.0

-1.5

-2.0

-1.9

-1.6

-2.1

-2.7

-2.7

Colombia

-0.4

-0.8

-1.6

-0.6

-2.4

-3.0

-4.0

-3.6

Costa Rica

-3.0

-3.0

-2.4

-2.9

-5.6

-5.7

-5.2

-6.1

Cuba

...

...

...

...

0.6

-0.5

...

...

Dominican Republic

-0.1

0.3

0.5

0.8

-2.6

-2.4

-2.4

-2.4

Ecuador

-4.9

-2.0

-3.6

-2.4

-6.3

-3.8

-5.6

-4.7

El Salvador

0.8

1.3

1.7

1.9

-1.6

-1.1

-0.8

0.9

Guatemala

-0.4

0.1

0.4

-0.5

-1.9

-1.4

-1.1

-1.9

Haiti

-0.5

0.3

0.8

...

-0.9

0.1

0.6

...

Honduras

-2.1

-0.6

-0.4

-0.5

-4.4

-3.0

-2.9

-3.6

Mexicoe

-1.2

-1.3

-0.3

1.4

-3.2

-3.4

-2.6

-1.3

Nicaragua

0.6

0.3

0.4

0.1

-0.3

-0.6

-0.6

-0.9

Panama

-2.3

-2.1

-2.5

-2.4

-4.0

-3.9

-4.3

-4.5

Paraguay

-0.7

-1.1

-0.7

-0.9

-1.1

-1.8

-1.4

-1.5

Perud

0.8

-1.1

-1.3

-1.7

-0.3

-2.2

-2.4

-2.9

Uruguay

0.0

-0.5

-1.0

-0.1

-2.3

-2.8

-3.7

-2.8

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

1.1

-0.2

...

...

-1.9

-1.4

...

...

The Caribbeanf

0.7

0.8

1.2

1.2

-2.8

-2.5

-2.2

-2.3

Antigua and Barbuda

-0.1

4.6

2.4

5.0

-2.7

2.2

0.0

2.6

Bahamasg

-1.7

-0.4

-2.6

-0.3

-4.4

-3.5

-5.7

-3.5

Barbadosh i

-0.6

-2.2

2.6

2.9

-8.1

-9.8

-5.6

-4.4

Belizeh

-1.2

-5.1

-1.6

3.2

-3.8

-7.5

-4.6

0.2

Dominica

0.1

0.0

...

...

-1.7

-1.8

...

...

Grenada

-1.2

2.2

4.8

4.8

-4.7

-1.2

1.8

1.9

Guyana

-4.5

-0.4

-3.5

-4.5

-5.5

-1.4

-4.4

-5.6

Jamaicah

7.6

7.4

8.4

6.8

-0.5

-0.3

0.1

-0.9

Saint Kitts and Nevis

13.9

8.2

6.1

1.5

10.5

6.2

4.5

-0.1

Saint Lucia

0.2

1.4

3.3

-1.3

-3.7

-2.4

-0.6

-5.7

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

0.3

2.0

3.8

...

-2.1

-0.2

1.8

...

Surinamej

-3.8

-8.1

-6.7

-2.5

-5.6

-10.2

-7.9

-6.0

Trinidad and Tobagok

-0.8

0.5

-2.9

-5.4

-2.6

-1.8

-5.5

-8.4

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Preliminary figures established on the basis of information from official budgets and estimates.

b Simple averages for the 33 countries reported. Coverage corresponds to central government.

c Simple averages for 17 countries. Does not include Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Cuba or Plurinational State of Bolivia.

d General government.

e Federal public sector.

f Simple averages for 17 countries. Does not include Dominica.

g Fiscal years, from 1 July to 30 June.

h Fiscal years, from 1 April to 31 March.

i Non-financial public sector.

j Includes statistical discrepancy.

k Fiscal years, from 1 October to 30 September.

Table A1.28

Latin America and the Caribbean: central government revenues composition

(Percentages of GDP)

Total revenue

Tax revenue

2014

2015

2016

2017a

2014

2015

2016

2017a

Latin America and the Caribbeanb

21.9

22.2

22.1

22.1

17.9

18.3

18.2

18.2

Latin Americac

18.2

18.2

18.3

18.2

15.3

15.6

15.7

15.6

Argentina

20.6

20.7

20.6

18.6

17.3

17.5

17.4

16.0

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)d

37.7

36.1

31.4

...

22.3

23.2

20.7

...

Brazil

21.1

20.8

21.0

20.3

19.9

19.7

19.8

18.8

Chile

20.6

21.2

21.1

21.2

17.9

19.1

18.8

19.0

Colombia

16.6

16.2

14.9

15.3

14.3

14.6

13.6

14.2

Costa Rica

13.9

14.3

14.6

14.6

13.1

13.4

13.8

13.7

Cuba

31.3

35.7

...

...

19.4

...

...

...

Dominican Republic

14.8

14.5

14.8

15.0

13.8

13.5

13.7

13.9

Ecuador

19.9

20.3

18.6

21.0

14.1

15.6

14.0

14.9

El Salvador

15.8

15.9

16.4

16.9

15.1

15.0

15.5

15.9

Guatemala

11.5

10.8

11.0

11.3

11.2

10.5

10.7

11.0

Haiti

13.1

13.5

14.4

...

12.0

13.2

13.7

...

Honduras

18.7

19.6

20.9

20.4

16.7

17.7

19.1

18.7

Mexicoe

23.1

23.5

24.9

22.7

10.5

13.0

13.9

13.0

Nicaragua

17.6

17.8

18.7

18.3

15.4

15.7

16.3

16.3

Panama

14.4

13.9

13.9

14.9

10.2

9.7

10.0

9.9

Paraguay

17.9

18.7

18.3

17.9

14.4

14.2

13.8

14.0

Perud

22.5

20.5

19.1

18.8

19.3

17.7

16.6

16.1

Uruguay

27.6

27.2

27.9

28.7

25.3

25.2

25.6

26.3

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

33.0

17.5

...

...

17.9

12.8

...

...

The Caribbeanf

27.2

27.8

27.4

27.7

21.6

22.1

21.8

22.0

Antigua and Barbuda

19.8

23.8

24.8

24.5

16.6

17.0

16.6

18.5

Bahamasg

19.7

21.8

22.0

23.4

17.4

18.9

18.5

21.3

Barbadosh i

27.7

27.8

30.3

31.0

25.1

25.6

27.5

28.6

Belizeh

29.3

28.3

31.2

32.7

24.7

24.5

27.3

28.5

Dominica

31.8

31.0

...

...

22.1

23.6

...

...

Granada

24.5

24.8

26.9

27.3

19.4

20.0

22.0

20.4

Guyana

23.6

25.7

26.0

26.4

21.4

21.8

21.3

21.5

Jamaicah

26.6

27.8

30.1

29.6

24.0

25.2

27.3

26.9

Saint Kitts and Nevis

43.4

40.2

34.2

33.2

20.7

21.4

19.5

20.0

Saint Lucia

25.7

26.2

27.4

29.7

22.9

23.6

25.5

24.6

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

29.3

28.8

30.7

...

22.2

22.3

24.2

...

Suriname

21.7

20.4

15.0

18.4

16.5

16.3

11.1

11.1

Trinidad and Tobagoj

34.8

38.1

30.8

25.0

28.2

28.2

20.4

18.4

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Preliminary figures established on the basis of information from official budgets and estimates.

b Simple averages for the 33 countries reported.

c Simple averages for 17 countries. Does not include Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Cuba or Plurinational State of Bolivia.

d General government.

e Federal public sector.

f Simple averages for 17 countries. Does not include Dominica.

g Fiscal years, from 1 July to 30 June.

h Fiscal years, from 1 April to 31 March.

i Non-financial public sector.

j Fiscal years, from 1 October to 30 September.

Table A1.29

Latin America and the Caribbean: central government expenditure composition

(Percentages of GDP)

Total expenditure

Interest payments on public debt

Capital expenditure

2014

2015

2016

2017a

2014

2015

2016

2017a

2014

2015

2016

2017a

Latin America and the Caribbeanb

24.7

24.9

24.8

24.9

2.4

2.5

2.6

2.8

4.5

4.2

3.8

4.0

Latin Americac

21.0

21.1

21.3

21.3

1.8

2.0

2.1

2.3

4.0

3.7

3.7

3.7

Argentina

24.8

24.5

26.5

24.1

1.9

1.8

3.7

3.1

4.2

2.7

2.1

1.7

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)d

40.2

40.6

34.4

...

0.8

0.9

0.6

...

16.6

13.7

12.2

...

Brazil

26.2

29.9

28.6

28.1

4.7

7.1

5.2

5.7

1.6

1.8

1.4

1.3

Chile

22.2

23.3

23.8

23.9

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.8

3.8

4.2

4.0

3.9

Colombia

19.1

19.2

18.9

18.9

2.1

2.2

2.5

3.0

3.0

3.0

2.3

1.9

Costa Rica

19.5

19.9

19.8

20.6

2.6

2.7

2.8

3.2

1.7

1.8

1.8

2.3

Cuba

30.7

36.2

...

...

...

...

...

...

3.1

4.1

...

...

Dominican Republic

17.3

16.9

17.2

17.3

2.5

2.7

2.9

3.2

2.7

2.8

2.8

2.7

Ecuador

26.2

24.1

24.1

25.6

1.4

1.8

1.9

2.3

11.5

9.6

9.6

9.2

El Salvador

17.4

17.0

17.1

17.8

2.4

2.4

2.5

2.8

2.8

2.6

2.6

2.8

Guatemala

13.4

12.3

12.1

13.2

1.4

1.6

1.5

1.4

2.9

2.2

2.1

2.5

Haiti

13.4

12.6

13.1

13.1

0.4

0.2

0.3

0.3

1.9

1.4

1.2

...

Honduras

23.1

22.6

23.7

24.0

2.3

2.5

2.5

3.1

5.2

4.6

5.2

5.9

Mexicoe

26.3

26.9

27.4

24.0

1.9

2.2

2.3

2.7

5.2

5.1

6.1

3.3

Nicaragua

17.9

18.4

19.3

19.2

0.9

0.9

1.0

1.1

4.0

4.5

4.6

5.3

Panama

18.4

17.8

18.2

19.4

1.7

1.8

1.8

2.1

6.8

6.3

6.7

7.1

Paraguay

19.0

20.5

19.7

19.4

0.4

0.6

0.7

0.6

3.6

4.1

4.3

4.3

Perud

22.8

22.7

21.5

21.8

1.1

1.0

1.1

1.2

6.0

5.5

4.8

5.1

Uruguay

29.9

30.0

31.6

31.5

2.3

2.3

2.7

2.7

1.4

1.2

1.4

1.4

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

35.9

19.2

...

...

3.0

1.2

...

...

6.1

3.9

...

...

The Caribbeanf

29.9

30.4

29.6

30.0

3.4

3.3

3.4

3.5

5.1

4.7

3.9

4.5

Antigua and Barbuda

22.5

21.6

24.8

21.8

2.6

2.4

2.5

2.4

1.6

1.4

4.0

2.6

Bahamasg

24.2

25.3

27.6

26.9

2.7

3.1

3.1

3.2

3.3

2.6

3.5

2.5

Barbadosh i

35.8

37.5

35.9

35.4

7.5

7.6

8.1

7.3

2.2

2.7

2.5

2.8

Belizeh

33.1

35.8

35.8

32.5

2.5

2.4

3.0

3.0

8.6

10.2

7.0

4.1

Dominica

33.5

32.9

...

...

1.8

1.8

1.9

...

8.5

5.9

...

...

Grenada

29.2

26.0

25.0

25.4

3.5

3.4

2.9

2.9

9.2

8.4

4.8

5.2

Guyana

29.1

27.2

30.5

32.0

1.0

1.0

0.9

1.1

8.0

4.7

6.6

7.5

Jamaicah

27.1

28.1

30.0

30.5

8.1

7.7

8.3

7.7

1.5

2.0

2.5

2.8

Saint Kitts and Nevis

32.8

34.0

29.7

33.4

3.4

2.0

1.6

1.6

5.7

7.0

3.2

8.6

Saint Lucia

29.4

28.6

28.0

35.4

3.9

3.8

3.9

4.4

5.7

5.7

3.8

9.3

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

31.4

30.1

28.9

...

2.3

2.3

2.0

...

5.5

4.3

3.4

...

Suriname

26.4

30.0

23.0

24.3

0.9

1.5

1.3

3.5

5.2

2.6

2.4

2.9

Trinidad and Tobagoj

37.4

39.9

36.3

33.4

1.9

2.3

2.6

3.0

5.0

5.1

3.0

2.4

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Preliminary figures established on the basis of information from official budgets and estimates.

b Simple averages for the 33 countries reported.

c Simple averages for 17 countries. Does not include Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Cuba or Plurinational State of Bolivia.

d General government.

e Federal public sector.

f Simple averages for 17 countries. Does not include Dominica.

g Fiscal years, from 1 July to 30 June.

h Fiscal years, from 1 April to 31 March.

i Non-financial public sector.

j Fiscal years, from 1 October to 30 September.

Table A1.30

Latin America and the Caribbean: central government gross public debt

(Percentages of GDP)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017a

Latin America and the Caribbeanb

41.4

45.2

44.6

45.2

46.9

48.2

48.9

50.0

52.0

51.6

Latin Americab

28.5

30.7

29.4

28.8

30.0

31.8

33.0

35.6

38.0

38.4

Argentina

39.2

39.6

36.1

33.3

35.1

43.5

44.7

53.5

54.2

53.7

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

34.0

36.3

34.6

34.5

29.1

28.4

27.7

29.5

31.5

31.7

Brazilc

57.5

59.6

52.0

50.8

55.2

56.7

58.9

66.5

69.9

73.9

Chile

5.1

5.7

8.6

11.0

11.9

12.8

14.9

17.4

21.3

23.8

Colombia

36.2

38.1

38.7

36.5

34.6

37.2

40.0

43.9

43.9

44.0

Costa Rica

24.1

26.5

28.4

29.8

34.3

35.9

38.5

40.9

44.6

47.2

Dominican Republic

23.2

27.1

27.6

28.8

32.2

38.1

37.1

34.7

36.4

38.6

Ecuador

15.1

10.7

11.5

12.1

11.9

13.6

16.2

19.1

24.6

26.1

El Salvador

34.4

42.6

42.6

41.7

45.7

44.4

44.8

44.7

44.8

43.6

Guatemala

19.9

22.8

24.0

23.7

24.3

24.6

24.3

24.2

24.0

23.5

Haitid

42.3

34.3

22.8

23.9

28.0

30.5

35.1

39.0

40.8

35.9

Honduras

20.1

23.9

30.4

32.5

34.4

43.1

44.4

44.6

45.5

47.8

Mexicoe

24.0

27.2

27.2

27.5

28.2

29.8

31.7

34.1

38.1

35.7

Nicaragua

28.6

32.3

33.3

31.9

31.5

30.8

30.2

29.9

30.7

31.0

Panama

42.0

40.7

39.6

36.7

35.2

35.0

36.8

38.5

38.8

39.0

Paraguay

13.4

13.9

12.1

9.8

12.6

13.0

15.8

17.6

19.9

20.8

Peru

23.1

22.8

20.7

18.4

18.3

17.3

18.2

19.7

22.6

21.2

Uruguay

44.5

53.3

39.9

38.4

40.2

36.9

39.2

47.2

46.4

44.2

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

15.2

25.2

29.0

25.1

27.5

32.9

28.5

31.7

44.6

47.4

The Caribbeanb

60.3

66.4

66.9

69.3

71.6

72.3

72.1

71.0

72.5

70.9

Antigua and Barbuda

72.6

79.6

74.2

77.1

72.2

77.9

82.1

71.8

70.1

68.0

Bahamas

39.0

50.0

54.3

55.3

59.6

65.6

72.9

75.3

79.3

79.7

Barbados

55.7

63.2

71.9

78.0

83.9

96.4

100.1

105.2

108.2

102.7

Belize

79.4

82.2

72.3

70.7

72.8

78.5

75.6

78.4

88.8

91.7

Dominica

57.1

53.7

56.7

54.6

64.6

65.0

62.9

65.0

56.9

51.4

Grenada

73.3

83.4

86.1

89.7

93.2

94.3

89.5

80.0

76.2

74.4

Guyanaf

62.9

67.0

68.0

66.7

63.6

58.1

51.8

48.7

47.6

46.2

Jamaicaf

112.3

126.3

131.7

131.4

133.9

135.5

131.8

128.1

125.1

109.5

Saint Kitts and Nevis

100.2

108.3

98.1

114.1

108.7

76.9

64.8

53.9

51.2

47.9

Saint Lucia

46.2

47.4

48.3

53.5

61.6

63.6

65.2

63.0

64.5

75.2

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

45.9

51.0

55.5

58.5

57.1

59.1

68.7

67.6

74.5

73.6

Suriname

15.7

15.7

18.6

20.1

21.6

29.9

26.8

42.8

47.2

50.1

Trinidad and Tobago

23.8

35.9

34.0

31.2

37.9

38.6

45.3

43.9

52.6

51.7

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Preliminary figures.

b Simple averages.

c General government.

d Data to September 2013. Does not include public sector liabilities owed to commercial banks.

e Federal government.

f Public sector

Table A1.31

Latin America and the Caribbean: non-financial public sector gross public debt

(Percentages of GDP)

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017a

Latin America and the Caribbeanb

45.7

50.0

50.5

50.0

51.5

52.9

53.4

54.5

55.9

55.3

Latin Americab

30.6

33.2

32.4

31.0

32.2

34.1

35.5

38.5

41.3

41.3

Argentina

39.2

39.6

36.1

33.3

35.1

43.5

44.7

53.5

54.2

53.7

Bolivia (Plurinational State of)c

37.2

39.5

38.1

33.7

31.3

30.4

30.0

31.6

34.3

34.3

Brazild

57.5

60.9

53.6

50.8

55.2

56.7

58.9

66.5

69.9

73.9

Chile

11.6

12.1

14.7

17.7

18.9

20.5

24.0

27.6

30.7

30.9

Colombia

42.6

45.1

46.2

43.1

40.7

43.1

46.0

50.1

54.9

54.0

Costa Rica

29.0

34.0

35.7

37.1

41.5

44.1

46.9

49.2

54.8

57.0

Dominican Republice

23.2

27.1

27.6

28.8

32.2

38.1

37.2

35.4

37.3

39.1

Ecuador

16.6

16.3

19.6

13.1

12.9

14.7

18.3

21.2

27.2

29.1

El Salvador

36.9

45.2

45.1

44.1

47.9

46.3

46.7

47.0

47.6

46.1

Guatemala

20.1

23.3

24.4

23.9

24.5

24.7

24.5

24.3

24.1

23.6

Haitie f

42.3

34.3

22.8

23.9

28.0

30.5

35.1

39.0

40.8

35.9

Hondurase

20.1

23.9

30.4

32.5

34.4

43.1

44.4

44.6

45.5

47.8

Mexicog

26.5

34.3

31.7

34.4

33.9

36.8

40.1

44.2

50.8

46.7

Nicaragua

29.4

34.2

34.8

32.6

32.2

31.5

30.7

30.4

32.1

31.5

Panama

42.6

45.4

43.0

37.3

35.7

35.5

37.1

38.8

39.3

39.3

Paraguayh

15.5

16.8

14.9

11.5

14.2

14.4

17.6

20.0

22.8

23.7

Peru

26.9

23.7

23.5

22.1

20.4

19.6

20.1

23.3

23.8

23.0

Uruguay

48.9

49.4

43.5

43.4

45.7

41.5

44.6

52.2

50.4

47.7

Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)e

15.2

25.2

29.0

25.1

27.5

32.9

28.5

31.7

44.6

47.4

The Caribbeanb

67.9

74.5

77.1

77.9

79.8

80.3

79.4

78.0

77.3

75.7

Antigua and Barbuda

79.8

89.5

84.0

92.2

86.9

100.1

97.8

85.7

82.6

78.0

Bahamase

39.0

50.0

54.3

55.3

59.6

65.6

72.9

75.3

79.3

79.7

Barbados

67.2

76.0

88.1

89.8

91.0

100.2

106.1

106.7

101.4

96.2

Belize

79.4

82.2

72.3

70.7

72.8

78.5

75.6

78.8

89.2

92.1

Dominica

69.2

65.0

69.0

67.5

77.6

77.7

75.6

75.3

63.3

65.2

Grenada

82.1

93.0

95.4

100.8

103.5

103.4

96.8

85.8

80.5

79.1

Guyana

62.9

67.0

68.0

66.7

63.6

58.1

51.8

48.7

47.3

46.2

Jamaica

112.3

126.3

131.7

131.4

133.9

135.5

131.8

128.1

125.1

109.5

Saint Kitts and Nevis

128.0

135.1

145.1

140.1

137.5

99.4

77.5

66.9

63.2

58.9

Saint Lucia

54.0

55.4

55.9

60.3

67.3

68.5

69.1

66.2

67.0

76.7

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

58.8

64.7

67.3

69.9

68.7

71.4

80.4

79.2

81.5

76.3

Surinamee

15.7

15.7

18.6

20.1

21.6

29.9

26.8

42.8

47.0

49.8

Trinidad and Tobago

34.5

49.0

52.9

48.0

53.2

56.2

70.6

74.4

77.2

75.9

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), on the basis of official figures.

a Preliminary figures.

b Simple averages.

c Refers to the external debt of the non-financial public sector and central government domestic debt.

d General government.

e Central government.

f Data to September 2013. Does not include public sector liabilities owed to commercial banks.

g Federal public sector.

h Domestic debt includes liabilities owed to the central bank only.

Table of Contents

Maintitle

Copyright

Contents

Executive summary

Chapter I

Global economic trends

Chapter II

Global liquidity

Chapter III

The external sector

Chapter IV

Economic activity

Chapter V

Domestic prices

Chapter VI

Employment and wages

Chapter VII

Macroeconomic policies

Chapter VIII

Outlook and challenges for 2018

Statistical annex